IT项目管理
chapter 1 项目管理概述
项目属性
A project is “a temporary endeavor undertaken to create a unique product, service, or result” (PMBOK® Guide, Fifth Edition, 2012) / 项目是“为创造独特的产品、服务或结果而进行的临时努力”(PMBOK®指南,第五版,2012年)
A project
- has a unique purpose / 有独特的目的
- is temporary / 临时的
- is developed using progressive elaboration / 使用渐进明细开发
- requires resources, often from various areas / 需要资源,通常来自各个领域
- should have a primary customer or sponsor / 应该有一个主要的客户或赞助商
- The project sponsor usually provides the direction and funding for the project / 项目赞助商通常为项目提供方向和资金
- involves uncertainty / 涉及不确定性
项目管理
项目管理指的是在“项目活动中运用专门的知识、技能、工具和技术,以满足项目需求”。
stakeholders 干系人
干系人是指参与项目或收到项目活动影响的人,包括项目发起人、项目团队、支持人员、客户、使用者、供应商,甚至是项目的反对者。
项目管理知识领域
- 知识领域描述了项目经理必须培养的关键能力。
项目经理必须具备所有 10 个知识领域(项目集成、范围、时间、成本、质量、人力资源、沟通、风险、采购和干系人管理)的知识和技能。项目管理工具和技术
项目成功
有几种方法可以定义项目成功: - 项目满足了范围、时间和成本目标
- 项目让客户/赞助商满意
- 该项目的结果达到了其主要目标,例如赚取或节省一定数量的钱,提供良好的投资回报,或者只是让赞助商满意
项目群和项目组合管理
项目群指的是“一组相互联系的项目,宜使用协同方法进行管理来获得收益和进行控制,而这种收益和控制在单独管理这些项目的时候是不易获得的。”
作为项目组合管理的一部分,组织将项目和项目群作为有助于整个企业成功的投资组合进行分组和管理
投资组合经理通过帮助从战略角度选择和分析项目,帮助他们的组织做出明智的投资决策
项目群经理为领导项目群内项目的项目经理提供领导和指导。
IT 领域的常见程序示例包括基础设施、应用程序开发和用户支持。
Summary
- A project is a temporary endeavor undertaken to create a unique product, service, or result / 项目是为创造独特的产品、服务或结果而进行的临时努力
- Project management is the application of knowledge, skills, tools, and techniques to project activities to meet project requirements / 项目管理是将知识、技能、工具和技术应用于项目活动,以满足项目需求
- A program is a group of related projects managed in a coordinated way / 项目群是以协调方式管理的一组相关项目
- Project portfolio management involves organizing and managing projects and programs as a portfolio of investments / 项目组合管理涉及将项目和项目组织和管理为投资组合
- Project managers play a key role in helping projects and organizations succeed
The project management profession continues to grow and mature / 项目管理专业继续增长和成熟chapter 2 项目管理和IT背景
项目管理的系统观点
系统方法:A systems approach emerged in the 1950s to describe a more analytical approach to management and problem solving / 系统方法于 1950 年代出现,用于描述更分析的管理和问题解决方法
System:是为了达到某些目的而在一个环境中运行的,又相互作用的要素组成的集合。
系统方法的三个部分包括:
- Systems philosophy: an overall model for thinking about things as systems / 系统哲学:一种思考事物作为系统的整体模型
- Systems analysis: problem-solving approach / 系统分析:解决问题的方法,定义所研究的系统范围,然后将他分解为各个部分来确认和评估相应的问题。
- Systems management: address business, technological, and organizational issues before making changes to systems / 系统管理:在对系统进行更改之前解决业务、技术和组织问题
三球模型:
业务、组织和技术。
了解组织
结构、人力资源、政治和符号。
- 结构框架
- 人力资源框架
- 政治框架
- 符号框架
组织结构
3 basic organization structures: - 职能型组织架构 Functional: functional managers report to the CEO / 功能经理向首席执行官汇报
- 项目型组织架构 Project: program managers report to the CEO / 项目经理向首席执行官汇报
- 矩阵型组织架构 Matrix: middle ground between functional and project structures; personnel often report to two or more bosses; structure can be weak, balanced, or strong matrix / 功能和项目结构之间的中间地带;人员通常向两个或两个以上的老板汇报;结构可以是弱矩阵、平衡矩阵或强矩阵
组织文化
组织文化是:Organizational culture is a set of shared assumptions, values, and behaviors that characterize the functioning of an organization / 一系列共同的能够刻画组织职能的设想、价值和行为。通常包括上述所有四种框架的元素。
项目工作通常在这样的文化中容易成功:
- 高:Member identity, Group emphasis, Risk tolerance, 基于绩效的奖励,对不同意见的容忍度,对 open-system 的重视。
- balance:注重 pepole, control, 基于产出的平衡。
干系人管理
- champion:倡导者,作为项目的关键支持者的高级经理。
- IT governance:IT 治理,解决组织的权威性以及控制关键的 IT 决策,包括IT 基础设施,IT 应用和项目管理。
- executive steering committee:执行委员会,包含组织的不同部分的高级职位的团体,用来定期审核公司的重要项目和问题。
项目阶段和项目生命周期
project life cycle:A project life cycle is a collection of project phases that defines / 项目生命周期是定义项目的一系列项目阶段 - what work will be performed in each phase / 每个阶段将执行什么工作
- what deliverables will be produced and when / 什么交付物将被产生以及何时
- who is involved in each phase, and / 谁参与每个阶段
- how management will control and approve work produced in each phase / 管理将如何控制和批准每个阶段产生的工作
A deliverable(可交付成果) is a product or service produced or provided as part of a project / 作为项目的一部分产生或提供的产品或服务。
- 项目早期:
- resource needs are usually lowest / 资源需求通常最低
- the level of uncertainty (risk) is highest / 不确定性(风险)水平最高
- project stakeholders have the greatest opportunity to influence the project / 项目干系人有最大的机会影响项目
- 项目中期:
- the certainty of completing a project improves / 完成项目的确定性提高
- more resources are needed / 需要更多资源
- 项目尾声:
- ensuring that project requirements were met / 确保项目需求得到满足
- the sponsor approves completion of the project / 赞助商批准项目完成
- project feasibility 项目可行性阶段:项目的前两个阶段,关注项目的计划编制
- 概念
- 开发
- project acquisition 项目获取阶段:项目的最后两个阶段,关注实际工作的交付
- Predictive life cycle: the scope of the project can be clearly articulated and the schedule and cost can be predicted / 可预测生命周期:项目的范围可以清晰表达,进度和成本可以预测
- Adaptive Software Development (ASD) life cycle: requirements cannot be clearly expressed, projects are mission driven and component based, using time-based cycles to meet target dates / 自适应软件开发(ASD)生命周期:需求无法清晰表达,项目是任务驱动和基于组件的,使用基于时间的周期来满足目标日期
Predictive Life Cycle Models / 预测生命周期模型
系统开发生命周期的一些通用模型包括瀑布模型、螺旋模型、渐增式构建模型、原型模式和快速应用开发模型(RAD)。这些都是可预测生命周期,意味着可以很明确地表达项目的范围,并且可以精确预测进度和成本。
Agile Software Development / 敏捷软件开发
Agile software development has become popular to describe new approaches that focus on close collaboration between programming teams and business experts / 敏捷软件开发已经变得流行,用于描述侧重于编程团队和业务专家之间紧密协作的新方法
The Importance of Project Phases and Management Reviews 项目阶段和管理审查的重要性
- A project should successfully pass through each of the project phases in order to continue on to the next / 项目应该成功地通过每个项目阶段,以便继续进行下一个
- Management reviews, also called 阶段出口 phase exits or 检查点 kill points, should occur after each phase to evaluate the project’s progress, likely success, and continued compatibility with organizational goals / 管理审查,也称为阶段出口或检查点,应在每个阶段之后进行,以评估项目的进展、可能的成功和与组织目标的持续兼容性
趋势
Outsourcing 外包
- outsourcing:一个组织从外部寻找来源以获取需要的产品和服务。
- offshoring:海外外包。安排在另一个国家的外包。
组织通过利用外包来发挥自己的优势,例如寻找降低成本的方法,从而保持竞争力virtual teams 虚拟团队
虚拟团队是指运用通信技术实现跨时间和地域工作的个人组成的团队。Agile Project Management
Scrum
Scrum is the leading agile development method for completing projects with a complex, innovative scope of work. / Scrum 是完成具有复杂、创新工作范围的项目的领先敏捷开发方法。chapter 3 项目管理过程组:案例研究
chapter 4 项目综合管理
What is project integration management
PIM(project integration management)涉及在整个项目生命周期中协调所有其他项目管理的知识领域。这种综合确保项目所有的组成要素能够在正确的时间整合在一起成功地完成项目。
根据《PMBOK》主要包括6个主要过程:
- 制定项目章程 / Develop Project Charter
- Developing the project charter involves working with stakeholders to create the document that formally authorizes a project—the charter.
/ 制定项目章程涉及与干系人合作创建正式授权项目的文件——章程。 - output:项目章程
- Developing the project charter involves working with stakeholders to create the document that formally authorizes a project—the charter.
- 开发项目管理计划 / Develop Project Management plan
- Developing the project management plan involves coordinating all planning efforts to create a consistent, coherent document—the project management plan.
/ 制定项目管理计划涉及协调所有规划工作,以创建一份一致、连贯的文件——项目管理计划。 - output:项目管理计划
- Developing the project management plan involves coordinating all planning efforts to create a consistent, coherent document—the project management plan.
- 指挥并管理项目执行 / Direct and Manage Project Work
- Directing and managing project work involves carrying out the project management plan by performing the activities included in it.
/ 指挥和管理项目工作涉及通过执行其中包含的活动来执行项目管理计划。 - output:Deliverables 交付成功,工作绩效数据、变更请求、项目管理计划更新、项目文档更新
- Directing and managing project work involves carrying out the project management plan by performing the activities included in it.
- Monitoring and controlling…
- 监控项目工作 / Monitor and Control Project Work
- Monitoring and controlling project work involves overseeing activities to meet the performance objectives of the project
/ 监控和控制项目工作涉及监督活动以满足项目的绩效目标 - output:变更请求、项目管理计划更新、项目文档更新
- Monitoring and controlling project work involves overseeing activities to meet the performance objectives of the project
- 综合变更控制 / Perform Integrated Change Control
- Performing integrated change control involves identifying, evaluating, and managing changes throughout the project life cycle.
/ 执行综合变更控制涉及在整个项目生命周期中识别、评估和管理变更。 - output:Approved change requests / 批准的变更请求 , change log / 变更日志, project management plan updates, project document updates
- Performing integrated change control involves identifying, evaluating, and managing changes throughout the project life cycle.
- 项目或阶段收尾 / Close Project or Phase
- Closing the project or phase involves finalizing all activities to formally close the project or phase.
/ 结束项目或阶段涉及完成所有活动,正式结束项目或阶段。 - output:Final product, service, or result transition / 最终产品、服务或结果过渡, Organizational process asset updates / 组织过程资产更新
- Closing the project or phase involves finalizing all activities to formally close the project or phase.
Strategic Planning and Project Selection / 战略规划和项目选择
Strategic plan
- Strategic planning involves determining long-term objectives, predicting future trends, and projecting the need for new products and services
/ 战略规划涉及确定长期目标、预测未来趋势,并预测对新产品和服务的需求 - Organizations often perform a SWOT analysis
- analyzing Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats / 分析优势、劣势、机会和威胁
- As part of strategic planning, organizations
- A product innovation and technology strategy for the business / 业务的产品创新和技术战略
- Resource commitment and focusing on the right projects, or solid portfolio management / 资源承诺和专注于正确的项目,或者稳健的组合管理
- An effective, flexible and streamlined idea-to-launch process / 一个有效、灵活和简化的从想法到上市的过程
- The right climate and culture for innovation, true cross-functional teams, and senior management commitment to NPD / 适合创新的氛围和文化,真正的跨职能团队,以及高级管理层对新产品开发的承诺
Methods for Selecting Projects
There are usually more projects than available time and resources to implement them
Methods for selecting projects include:
- focusing on broad organizational needs / 关注广泛的组织需求
- categorizing information technology projects / 对 IT 项目进行分类
- performing net present value or other financial analyses / 进行净现值或其他财务分析
- using a weighted scoring model / 使用加权评分模型
- implementing a balanced scorecard / 实施平衡计分卡
Focusing on Broad Organizational Needs
Three important criteria for projects: - There is a need for the project / 项目有需求
- There are funds available / 有资金可用
- There’s a strong will to make the project succeed / 有强烈的意愿使项目成功
Categorizing IT Projects
从动机、时间、优先级的角度对 IT 项目进行分类: - One categorization is whether the project addresses / 一个分类是项目是否解决
- a problem
- 不期望出现的那些造成组织无法实现其目标的情况
- an opportunity
- 改善组织的机会
- a directive
- 由管理层/政府/外部影响施加的新要求
- a problem
- Another categorization is how long it will take to do and when it is needed / 另一个分类是完成项目需要多长时间以及何时需要
- Another is the overall priority of the project / 另一个是项目的整体优先级
Financial Analysis of Projects / 项目的财务分析
财务考虑通常是选择项目的重要考虑因素。确定项目预计财务价值的三种主要方法:
- Net present value (NPV) analysis 净现值 (NPV) 分析
- Return on investment (ROI) 投资回报率 (ROI)
- Payback analysis 投资回收期分析
Net Present Value (NPV) Analysis
- 净现值 (NPV) 分析是一种计算项目预期净货币收益或损失的方法,方法是将所有预期的未来现金流入和流出贴现到当前时间点。
- 如果财务价值是一个关键标准,则应考虑 NPV 为正的项目,NPV 越高越好。
折现因子公式:每年的成本和收益都要和折现因子相乘。其中: - $CI_t:第t年的现金流入量$;
- $CO_t:第t年的现金流出量$;
- $i:折现率$;
- $t:计算年限$;
- $n:投资项目的寿命周期$;
NPV Calculate
- Determine estimated costs and benefits for the life of the project and the products it produces / 确定项目生命周期和其产生的产品的预计成本和收益
- Determine the discount rate (check with your organization on what to use) / 确定折现率(与您的组织核实使用什么)
- Calculate the NPV (see text for details) / 计算 NPV
- Notes: 一些组织将投资年度视为第 0 年,而另一些组织则从第 1 年开始。 有些人将成本输入为负数,而另一些人则没有。 请与您的组织联系,了解他们的偏好
Return on Investment (ROI)
- ROI 也是越高越好。
- Many organizations have a required rate of return or minimum acceptable rate of return on investment for projects / 许多组织对项目的投资有一个要求的回报率或最低可接受的回报率
- Internal rate of return (IRR) can by calculated by finding the discount rate that makes the NPV equal to zero / 内部收益率(IRR)可以通过找到使 NPV 等于零的折现率来计算
Payback Analysis
- The payback period is the amount of time it will take to recoup, in the form of net cash inflows, the total dollars invested in a project / 投资回收期是在净现金流入的形式中收回项目中投资的总美元所需的时间
- Payback occurs when the net cumulative discounted benefits equals the costs / 投资回收期是在净现金流入的形式中收回项目中的投资所需的时间
- Many organizations want IT projects to have a fairly short payback period / 许多组织希望 IT 项目具有相当短的回收期
Weighted Scoring Model / 加权评分模型
Balanced Scorecard / 平衡计分卡
是一种将组织的价值驱动因素(例如客户服务、创新、运营效率和财务绩效)转换为一系列定义指标的方法
Developing a Project Charter / 制定项目章程
- After deciding what project to work on, it is important to let the rest of the organization know / 决定要处理的项目后,让组织的其他部分知道是很重要的
- A project charter is a document that formally recognizes the existence of a project and provides direction on the project’s objectives and management / 项目章程是一份正式承认项目存在的文件,并为项目的目标和管理提供方向
- Key project stakeholders should sign a project charter to acknowledge agreement on the need and intent of the project; a signed charter is a key output of project integration management / 项目的关键干系人应签署项目章程,以承认对项目的需求和意图的一致意见;签署的章程是项目综合管理的关键输出
Inputs for Developing a Project Charter
- A project statement of work (SOW) / 项目工作说明书(SOW)
- A business case / 商业论证(业务案例)
- Agreements / 合同(协议)
- Enterprise environmental factors / 企业环境因素
- Organizational process assets, which include formal and informal plans, policies, procedures, guidelines, information systems, financial systems, management systems, lessons learned, and historical information / 组织过程资产,包括正式和非正式计划、政策、程序、指南、信息系统、财务系统、管理系统、经验教训和历史信息
Developing a Project Management Plan / 制定项目管理计划
- A project management plan is a document used to coordinate all project planning documents and help guide a project’s execution and control / 项目管理计划是用于协调所有项目规划文档并帮助指导项目执行和控制的文件
- Plans created in the other knowledge areas are subsidiary parts of the overall project management plan / 在其他知识领域中创建的计划是整体项目管理计划的附属部分
Common Elements of a Project Management Plan
- Introduction or overview of the project / 项目的介绍或概述
- Description of how the project is organized / 项目组织的描述
- Management and technical processes used on the project / 项目上使用的管理和技术流程
- Work to be done, schedule, and budget information / 要完成的工作、时间表和预算信息
Directing and Managing Project Work / 指挥和管理项目工作
- Involves managing and performing the work described in the project management plan / 包括管理和执行项目管理计划中描述的工作
- The majority of time and money is usually spent on execution / 通常在执行上花费大部分时间和金钱
- The application area of the project directly affects project execution because the products of the project are produced during execution / 项目的应用领域直接影响项目的执行,因为项目的产品是在执行过程中产生的
Coordinating Planning and Execution / 协调规划和执行
- Project planning and execution are intertwined and inseparable activities / 项目规划和执行是交织在一起的、不可分割的活动
- Those who will do the work should help to plan the work / 那些将要做工作的人应该帮助规划工作
- Project managers must solicit input from the team to develop realistic plans / 项目经理必须征求团队的意见,制定现实的计划
Providing Leadership and a Supportive Culture / 提供领导和支持性文化
- Project managers must lead by example to demonstrate the importance of creating and then following good project plans / 项目经理必须以身作则,以示创建和遵循良好项目计划的重要性
- Organizational culture can help project execution by / 组织文化可以这样帮助项目执行
- providing guidelines and templates / 提供指南和模板
- tracking performance based on plans / 根据计划跟踪绩效
- Project managers may still need to break the rules to meet project goals, and senior managers must support those actions / 项目经理可能仍然需要打破规则以实现项目目标,高级经理必须支持这些行动
Capitalizing on Product, Business, and Application Area Knowledge / 利用产品、业务和应用领域知识
- It is often helpful for IT project managers to have prior technical experience / 对于 IT 项目经理来说,先前的技术经验通常是有帮助的
- On small projects, the project manager may be required to perform some of the technical work or mentor team members to complete the projects / 在小型项目中,项目经理可能需要执行一些技术工作或指导团队成员完成项目
- On large projects, the project manager must understand the business and application area of the project / 在大型项目中,项目经理必须了解项目的业务和应用领域
Project Execution Tools and Techniques / 项目执行工具和技术
- Expert judgment: Experts can help project managers and their teams make many decisions related to project execution / 专家可以帮助项目经理及其团队做出许多与项目执行相关的决策
- Meetings: Meetings allow people to develop relationships, pick up on important body language or tone of voice, and have a dialogue to help resolve problems. / 会议允许人们建立关系,了解重要的肢体语言或语调,并进行对话以帮助解决问题
- Project management information systems: There are hundreds of project management software products available on the market today, and many organizations are moving toward powerful enterprise project management systems that are accessible via the Internet / 今天市场上有数百种项目管理软件产品可用,许多组织正在转向功能强大的企业项目管理系统,这些系统可以通过互联网访问
Monitoring and Controlling Project Work / 监控和控制项目工作
- Changes are inevitable on most projects, so it’s important to develop and follow a process to monitor and control changes / 大多数项目都不可避免地会发生变化,因此重要的是制定并遵循一个过程来监控和控制变化
- Monitoring project work includes collecting, measuring, and disseminating performance information / 监控项目工作包括收集、测量和传播绩效信息
- A baseline is the approved project management plan plus approved changes / 基线是经批准的项目管理计划加上经批准的变更
Performing Integrated Change Control / 综合变更控制
Integrated change control 涉及在项目的全生命周期中识别、评估和管理变更。
三大主要目标是:
- Influencing the factors that create changes to ensure that changes are beneficial / 影响导致变更的因素,以确保变更是有益的
- Determining that a change has occurred / 确定发生了变化
- Managing actual changes as they occur / 当变化发生时管理实际变化
Change Control on IT 项目
Modern view: Project management is a process of constant communication and negotiation / 现代观点:项目管理是一个不断沟通和协商的过程
Solution: Changes are often beneficial, and the project team should plan for them / 变更通常是有益的,项目团队应该为它们做好计划Change Control Systems
A change control system is a formal, documented process that describes when and how official project documents and work may be changed / 变更控制系统是一种正式的、记录在案的过程,描述了何时以及如何可以更改正式项目文档和工作
Describes who is authorized to make changes and how to make them / 描述了谁有权进行更改以及如何进行更改Change Control Board(CCB) / 变更控制委员会
- A change control board is a formal group of people responsible for approving or rejecting changes on a project / 变更控制委员会是一个负责批准或拒绝项目变更的正式团队
- CCBs provide guidelines for preparing change requests, evaluate change requests, and manage the implementation of approved changes / CCB 为准备变更请求提供指导,评估变更请求,并管理批准变更的实施
- Includes stakeholders from the entire organization / 包括来自整个组织的干系人
Making Timely Changes / 及时变更
- Some CCBs only meet occasionally, so it may take too long for changes to occur / 有些 CCB 只是偶尔开会,所以变更可能需要很长时间
- Some organizations have policies in place for time-sensitive changes / 一些组织已经制定了及时变更的政策
- “48-hour policy” allows project team members to make decisions, then they have 48 hours to reverse the decision pending senior management approval / “48 小时政策”允许项目团队成员做出决定,然后他们有 48 小时的时间来撤销决定,等待高级管理层的批准
- Delegate changes to the lowest level possible, but keep everyone informed of changes / 将变更委托给可能的最低级别,但保持所有人对变更的了解
Configuration Management / 配置管理
- Configuration management ensures that the descriptions of the project’s products are correct and complete / 配置管理确保项目产品的描述是正确和完整的
- Involves identifying and controlling the functional and physical design characteristics of products and their support documentation / 包括识别和控制产品的功能和物理设计特性及其支持文档
- Configuration management specialists identify and document configuration requirements, control changes, record and report changes, and audit the products to verify conformance to requirements / 配置管理专家识别和记录配置要求,控制变更,记录和报告变更,并对产品进行审计,以验证其符合要求
Closing the Project or Phase / 结束项目或阶段
- To close a project or phase, you must finalize all activities and transfer the completed or cancelled work to the appropriate people / 要结束项目或阶段,必须完成所有活动,并将完成或取消的工作转交给适当的人员
- Main outputs include / 主要输出包括:
- Final product, service, or result transition / 最终产品、服务或结果过渡
- Organizational process asset updates / 组织过程资产更新
chapter 5 项目范围管理 Project Scope Management
定义:Project scope management includes the processes involved in defining and controlling what is or is not included in a project. / 是指对项目包括什么与不包括什么的界定和控制的过程。它确保团队和项目干系人在项目开发什么产品以及开发产品使用什么过程这两方面达成共识。
项目范围管理涉及的6个主要过程主要是:
Planing:
- Planning scope 范围管理计划: determining how the project’s scope and requirements will be managed/ 确定项目的范围和需求将如何被管理
- output:范围管理计划、需求管理计划
- Collecting requirements 收集需求: defining and documenting the features and functions of the products produced during the project as well as the processes used for creating them / 定义和记录项目期间产品的特性和功能,以及用于创建它们的过程
- output:需求文档、需求跟踪矩阵
- Defining scope 定义范围: reviewing the project charter, requirements documents, and organizational process assets to create a scope statement / 通过审查项目章程、需求文档和组织过程资产来创建范围说明书
- output:项目范围说明书、项目文档更新
- Creating the WBS 创建 WBS: subdividing the major project deliverables into smaller, more manageable components / 将主要项目可交付成果细分为更小、更易管理的组件
- output:范围基准、项目文档更新
Monitoring and controlling:
- Validating scope 验证范围: formalizing acceptance of the project deliverables / 正式接受项目可交付成果
- output:验收的可交付成果、变更请求、项目文档更新
- Controlling scope 控制范围: controlling changes to project scope throughout the life of the project / 在项目生命周期中控制项目范围的变更
- 如何准备一个详细的范围说明书
- 如何创建一个 WBS
- 如何维护和批准 WBS
- 如何获得正式验收已完成的项目可交付成果
- 如何控制项目范围变更的请求
范围管理计划的另外一个重要输出是需求管理计划。Collecting Requirements
Methods for Collecting Requirements
- Interviewing / 采访(成本高耗时长)
- Focus groups and facilitated workshops / 焦点小组和引导式研讨会
- Using group creativity and decision-making techniques / 使用团队创造力和决策技术
- Questionnaires and surveys / 问卷调查
- Observation / 观察
- Prototyping / 原型
- Benchmarking / 基准比较,or generating ideas by comparing specific project practices or product characteristics to those of other projects or products inside or outside the performing organization, can also be used to collect requirements / 通过比较特定项目实践或产品特性与执行组织内部或外部的其他项目或产品的实践或特性来产生想法,也可以用于收集需求
Defining Scope
项目范围声明应至少包括产品范围描述、产品用户验收标准以及有关所有项目可交付结果的详细信息。记录其他与范围相关的信息(例如,项目边界、约束和假设)也很有帮助。项目范围声明还应引用支持文件,例如产品规格
随着时间的推移,项目的范围应该变得更加清晰和具体
Creating the Work Breakdown Structure (WBS)
A WBS is a deliverable-oriented grouping of the work involved in a project that defines the total scope of the project. / WBS 是项目中涉及的工作的交付导向分组,定义了项目的总体范围。
Approaches to Developing WBSs
- Using guidelines 指南: Some organizations, like the DOD, provide guidelines for preparing WBSs / 一些组织,如美国国防部,提供了准备 WBS 的指南
- The analogy approach 类比: Review WBSs of similar projects and tailor to your project / 查看类似项目的 WBS 并根据项目进行调整
- The top-down approach: Start with the largest items of the project and break them down / 从项目的最大项目开始并逐步细分
- The bottom-up approach: Start with the specific tasks and roll them up / 从具体任务开始并逐步汇总
- Mind-mapping approach: Mind mapping is a technique that uses branches radiating out from a core idea to structure thoughts and ideas / 思维导图是一种技术,它使用从核心思想辐射出来的分支来构建思想和想法
WBS Dictionary
许多 WBS 任务是模糊的,必须进行更多解释,以便人们知道该做什么,并可以估计完成这项工作需要多长时间和成本
- 定义:WBS Dictionary 是描述有关每个 WBS 项目的详细信息的文档。
Advice for Creating a WBS and WBS Dictionary
- 一个工作单元应仅出现在 WBS 中的一个位置。
- WBS 项的工作内容是其下方的 WBS 项的总和
- 一个 WBS 项目仅由一个人负责,即使可能有很多人在处理它
- WBS 必须与实际执行工作的方式一致;它应该首先为项目团队服务,只有在可行的情况下才能用于其他目的
- 项目团队成员应参与开发 WBS,以确保一致性和支持
- 每个 WBS 项目都必须记录在 WBS 词典中,以确保准确理解该项目包含和不包含的工作范围
- WBS 必须是一个灵活的工具,以适应不可避免的变化,同时根据范围声明适当地保持对项目中工作内容的控制
Validating Scope
- 为项目创建良好的范围声明和 WBS 非常困难
- 验证项目范围和最小化范围变更更加困难
- 范围验证包括正式接受已完成的项目交付物
- 验收通常是通过客户检查,然后签字关键可交付成果来实现的
Controlling Scope
- 范围控制涉及控制对项目范围的更改
- 范围控制的目标是
- 影响导致范围更改的因素
- 确保变更根据作为集成变更控制的一部分制定的程序进行处理,并且
- 在更改发生时对其进行管理
- Variance 是计划绩效与实际绩效之间的差
Best Practices for Avoiding Scope Problems
- 保持范围真实。不要使项目太大以至于无法完成。将大型项目分解为一系列较小的项目
- 让用户参与项目范围管理。将关键用户分配给项目团队,并赋予他们需求定义和范围验证的所有权
- 尽可能使用现成的硬件和软件。许多 IT 人员喜欢使用最新、最出色的技术,但必须优先考虑业务需求,而不是技术趋势
- 遵循良好的项目管理流程。如本章和其他章节所述,有一些定义明确的流程可用于管理项目范围和项目的其他方面
Suggestions for Improving User Input
- 制定良好的项目选择流程,并坚持发起人来自用户组织
- 让项目团队中的用户担任重要角色
- 定期召开会议,制定明确的议程,并让用户签署会议上提交的关键可交付成果
- 定期向用户和赞助商交付内容
- 当你知道自己无法交付时,不要承诺交付
- 将用户与开发人员放在同一位置
Suggestions for Reducing Incomplete and Changing Requirements
- 制定并遵循需求管理流程
- 使用原型设计、用例建模和 JAD 等技术来提高用户参与度
- 将需求写下来并保持最新
- 创建用于记录和控制需求的需求管理数据库
- 在整个项目生命周期中提供足够的测试并进行测试
- 从系统角度查看更改
- 强调完成日期以帮助专注于最重要的事情
- 分配专门用于处理变更请求/增强功能的资源,就像 NWA 对 ResNet 所做的那样
chapter 6 项目时间管理
定义:确保项目按时完成所需的过程。the importance of project schedules
- Managers often cite delivering projects on time as one of their biggest challenges / 管理者经常将按时交付项目列为他们面临的最大挑战之一
- Time has the least amount of flexibility; it passes no matter what happens on a project / 时间的灵活性最小;无论项目发生什么,时间都会流逝
- Schedule issues are the main reason for conflicts on projects, especially during the second half of projects / 进度问题是项目冲突的主要原因,尤其是在项目的后半段
有 7 个主要的过程:
- Planning schedule management 计划进度管理: determining the policies, procedures, and documentation that will be used for planning, executing, and controlling the project schedule / 确定将用于规划、执行和控制项目进度的政策、程序和文档
- output:进度管理计划
- Defining activities 定义活动: identifying the specific activities that the project team members and stakeholders must perform to produce the project deliverables / 确定项目团队成员和干系人必须执行的特定活动,以产生项目可交付成果
- output:活动清单、活动属性、里程碑清单、更新的项目管理计划
- Sequencing activities 排序活动: identifying and documenting the relationships between project activities / 确定和记录项目活动之间的关系
- output:项目进度网络图、更新的项目文档
- Estimating activity resources 估算活动资源: estimating how many resources a project team should use to perform project activities / 估计项目团队应该使用多少资源来执行项目活动
- output:估算资源需求、项目分解结构、更新的项目文档
- Estimating activity durations 估算活动工期: estimating the number of work periods that are needed to complete individual activities / 估计完成单个活动所需的工作周期数
- output:活动工期估算、更新的项目文档
- Developing the schedule 制定进度计划: analyzing activity sequences, activity resource estimates, and activity duration estimates to create the project schedule / 分析活动顺序、活动资源估算和活动工期估算,以创建项目进度
- output:进度基线、项目进度、进度数据、项目日历、更新的项目管理计划和项目文档
monitoring and controlling
- output:进度基线、项目进度、进度数据、项目日历、更新的项目管理计划和项目文档
- Controlling the schedule 控制进度: controlling and managing changes to the project schedule / 控制和管理对项目进度的变更
- output:工作绩效信息、进度预测、变更请求、项目管理计划更新、项目文档更新、组织过程资产更新
- output:工作绩效信息、进度预测、变更请求、项目管理计划更新、项目文档更新、组织过程资产更新
Planning Schedule Management
The project team uses expert judgment, analytical techniques, and meetings to develop the schedule management plan
A schedule management plan includes:
- Project schedule model development / 项目进度模型开发
- The scheduling methodology / 计划方法论
- Level of accuracy and units of measure / 精度水平和计量单位
- Control thresholds / 控制阈值
- Rules of performance measurement / 绩效测量规则
- Reporting formats / 报告格式
- Process descriptions / 过程描述
Defining Activities
- An activity or task is an element of work normally found on the work breakdown structure (WBS) that has an expected duration, a cost, and resource requirements / 活动或任务是通常在工作分解结构(WBS)上找到的工作元素,具有预期工期、成本和资源需求
- Activity definition involves developing a more detailed WBS and supporting explanations to understand all the work to be done so you can develop realistic cost and duration estimates / 活动定义涉及开发更详细的 WBS 和支持性解释,以了解所有要完成的工作,以便您可以开发出真实的成本和工期估算
Activity List and Attributes
定义:An activity list is a tabulation of activities to be included on a project schedule that includes - the activity name
- an activity identifier or number
- a brief description of the activity
/ 一个活动列表是一个包含在项目进度表上的活动的表格,包括活动名称、活动标识符或编号、活动的简要描述
Activity attributes provide more information such as predecessors, successors, logical relationships, leads and lags, resource requirements, constraints, imposed dates, and assumptions related to the activity / 活动属性提供更多信息,例如前置活动、后续活动、逻辑关系、提前量和滞后量、资源需求、约束、强加日期和与活动相关的假设
Milestones
- A milestone is a significant event that normally has no duration
It often takes several activities and a lot of work to complete a milestone / 完成一个里程碑通常需要完成几个活动和大量工作 - They’re useful tools for setting schedule goals and monitoring progress / 它们是设定进度目标和监控进度的有用工具
- Examples include obtaining customer sign-off on key documents or completion of specific products / 例如,获得客户对关键文档的签字或完成特定产品
Sequencing Activities
- Involves reviewing activities and determining dependencies / 包括审查活动并确定依赖关系
- A dependency or relationship is the sequencing of project activities or tasks / 依赖关系或关系是项目活动或任务的排序
- You must determine dependencies in order to use critical path analysis / 您必须确定依赖关系,以便使用关键路径分析
Types of Dependencies
- Mandatory dependencies: inherent in the nature of the work being performed on a project, sometimes referred to as hard logic
/ 强制依赖关系:固有于项目上正在执行的工作性质中,有时被称为硬逻辑 - Discretionary dependencies: defined by the project team., sometimes referred to as soft logic and should be used with care since they may limit later scheduling options
/ 自由依赖关系:由项目团队定义,有时被称为软逻辑,应谨慎使用,因为它们可能限制后续的调度选项 - External dependencies: involve relationships between project and non-project activities
/ 外部依赖关系:涉及项目和非项目活动之间的关系
Network Diagrams
- Network diagrams are the preferred technique for showing activity sequencing / 网络图是显示活动排序的首选技术
- A network diagram is a schematic display of the logical relationships among, or sequencing of, project activities / 网络图是项目活动之间的逻辑关系或排序的图示显示
- Two main formats are the arrow and precedence diagramming methods / 两种主要格式是箭头图(ADM)和优先关系图(PDM)
Arrow Diagramming Method (ADM)
- Also called activity-on-arrow (AOA) network diagrams
- Activities are represented by arrows
- Nodes or circles are the starting and ending points of activities
- Can only show finish-to-start dependencies
Process of Creating an Arrow Diagram
- Find all of the activities that start at node 1. Draw their finish nodes and draw arrows between node 1 and those finish nodes. Put the activity letter or name and duration estimate on the associated arrow
/ 找到所有从节点 1 开始的活动。绘制它们的完成节点,并在节点 1 和这些完成节点之间绘制箭头。在相关的箭头上放置活动字母或名称和持续时间估计 - Continuing drawing the network diagram, working from left to right. Look for bursts and merges. Bursts occur when a single node is followed by two or more activities. A merge occurs when two or more nodes precede a single node
/ 继续绘制网络图,从左到右工作。查找突发和合并。突发发生在单个节点后面跟随两个或两个以上的活动时。合并发生在两个或两个以上的节点之前跟随单个节点时 - Continue drawing the project network diagram until all activities are included on the diagram that have dependencies
/ 继续绘制项目网络图,直到包含所有具有依赖关系的活动为止 - As a rule of thumb, all arrowheads should face toward the right, and no arrows should cross on an AOA network diagram
/ 作为一个经验法则,所有箭头都应朝向右边,而且在 AOA 网络图上不应该交叉
Precedence Diagramming Method (PDM)
- Activities are represented by boxes / 活动由方框表示
- Arrows show relationships between activities / 箭头显示活动之间的关系
- More popular than ADM method and used by project management software / 比 ADM 方法更受欢迎,被项目管理软件使用
- Better at showing different types of dependencies / 更擅长显示不同类型的依赖关系
Estimating Activity Resources
- Before estimating activity durations, you must have a good idea of the quantity and type of resources that will be assigned to each activity; resources are people, equipment, and materials / 在估算活动工期之前,您必须对将分配给每个活动的资源的数量和类型有一个很好的了解;资源是人员、设备和材料
- Consider important issues in estimating resources
- How difficult will it be to do specific activities on this project? / 在这个项目中执行特定活动会有多困难?
- What is the organization’s history in doing similar activities? / 组织在执行类似活动方面的历史如何?
- Are the required resources available? / 所需资源是否可用?
A resource breakdown structure is a hierarchical structure that identifies the project’s resources by category and type / 资源分解结构是一种层次结构,通过类别和类型识别项目的资源
Estimating Activity Durations
Duration includes the actual amount of time worked on an activity plus elapsed time / 工期包括在活动上实际工作的时间加上经过的时间
Effort is the number of workdays or work hours required to complete a task / 人工量是完成任务所需的工作日或工作小时数
Effort does not normally equal duration / 人工量通常不等于工期
People doing the work should help create estimates, and an expert should review them / 做工作的人应该帮助创建估算,并且专家应该审查它们
Three Point Estimates
Instead of providing activity estimates as a discrete number, such as four weeks, it’s often helpful to create a three-point estimate
an estimate that includes an optimistic, most likely, and pessimistic estimate, such as three weeks for the optimistic, four weeks for the most likely, and five weeks for the pessimistic estimate / 一个包括乐观、最可能和悲观估计的估计,例如乐观估计为三周,最可能为四周,悲观估计为五周
Three-point estimates are needed for PERT and Monte Carlo simulations / 需要三点估计用于 PERT 和蒙特卡洛模拟
Developing the Schedule / 制定进度
Uses results of the other time management processes to determine the start and end date of the project / 使用其他时间管理过程的结果来确定项目的开始和结束日期
Ultimate goal is to create a realistic project schedule that provides a basis for monitoring project progress for the time dimension of the project / 最终目标是创建一个真实的项目进度表,为监控项目进度提供一个基础
Important tools and techniques include Gantt charts, critical path analysis, and critical chain scheduling, and PERT analysis / 重要的工具和技术包括甘特图、关键路径分析和关键链调度,以及 PERT 分析
PEST分析是指宏观环境的分析,宏观环境又称一般环境,是指影响一切行业和企业的各种宏观力量。对宏观环境因素作分析,不同行业和企业根据自身特点和经营需要,分析的具体内容会有差异,但一般都应对政治(Political)、经济(Economic)、技术(Technological)和社会(Social)这四大类影响企业的主要外部环境因素进行分析。简单而言,称之为PEST分析法。
Gantt Charts
Gantt charts provide a standard format for displaying project schedule information by listing project activities and their corresponding start and finish dates in a calendar format / 甘特图通过以日历格式列出项目活动及其对应的开始和结束日期,为显示项目进度信息提供了标准格式
Symbols include:
- A black diamond: a milestones / 黑色菱形:里程碑
- A white diamond: / 白色菱形:完成的时间比计划晚的里程碑
- Thick black bars: summary tasks / 粗黑条:摘要任务
- Lighter horizontal bars: durations of tasks / 较浅的水平条:任务的持续时间
- Arrows: dependencies between tasks / 箭头:任务之间的依赖关系
Adding Milestones to Gantt Charts
- Many people like to focus on meeting milestones, especially for large projects / 许多人喜欢专注于达到里程碑,尤其是对于大型项目
- Milestones emphasize important events or accomplishments on projects
Normally create milestone by entering tasks with a zero duration, or you can mark any task as a milestone / 通常通过输入持续时间为零的任务来创建里程碑,或者您可以将任何任务标记为里程碑
SMART原则:具体(Specific)、可衡量(Measurable)、可达成(Achievable)、相关(Relevant)、时限(Time-bound)
项目经理可以通过项目里程碑来降低进度风险,这是一种涉及识别和跟踪项目中的重要点或成就的最佳实践。使用项目里程碑的五个关键点包括:
- 在项目早期定义里程碑,并将其包含在甘特图中以提供可视化指导
- 保持里程碑小而频繁
- 里程碑集必须是包罗万象的
- 每个里程碑必须是完成或没完成的二元状态
- 仔细监控关键路径
Tracking Gantt Charts
- A tracking Gantt chart is used to compare actual progress to planned progress / 跟踪甘特图用于比较实际进度和计划进度
Critical Path Method (CPM) / 关键路径法
- CPM is a network diagramming technique used to predict total project duration / CPM 是一种用于预测总项目持续时间的网络图技术
- A critical path for a project is the series of activities that determines the earliest time by which the project can be completed / 项目的关键路径是确定项目可以完成的最早时间的一系列活动
- The critical path is the longest path through the network diagram and has the least amount of slack or float / 关键路径是网络图中最长的路径,具有最少的松弛或浮动
- Slack or float is the amount of time an activity may be delayed without delaying a succeeding activity or the project finish date / 松弛或浮动是活动可能延迟的时间,而不会延迟后续活动或项目完成日期
Using Critical Path Analysis to Make Schedule Trade-offs / 使用关键路径分析进行进度权衡
- Free slack or free float 自由时差或自由浮动时间 is the amount of time an activity can be delayed without delaying the early start of any immediately following activities / 自由时差或自由浮动时间是一个活动在不延误紧接着活动的最早开始时间的情况下可以延迟的时间
- Total slack or total float is the amount of time an activity may be delayed from its early start without delaying the planned project finish date / 总时差或总浮动是活动可以从它最早开始时间起,在没有拖延计划项目完成日期的情况下被耽误的时间
- A forward pass 正推法 through the network diagram determines the early start and finish dates / 正推法决定每个活动的最早开始和最早完成时间。
- A backward pass 逆推法 determines the late start and finish dates / 逆推法可决定最晚开始和最晚完成时间。
- 最早开始时间(ES):是基于项目网络逻辑可以开始的最早的可能时间。
- 最早完成时间(EF):是基于项目网络逻辑最早可能完成的时间。最早开始时间加上第一个活动的工期就等于一个活动的最早完成时间。他还等于每个随后活动的最早开始时间。除非一个活动有多个前导活动,此时他的最早开始时间是这些活动的最晚的最早完成时间。
- 最晚开始时间(LS):是一个活动在不延迟项目完成时间的最晚可能开始的时间。
- 最晚完成时间(LF):是一个活动在不延迟项目完成时间的最晚可能完成的时间。
左上角:ES(Early Start):活动的最早开始时间
右上角:EF(Early Finish):活动的最早完成时间
左下角:LS(Late Start):活动的最晚开始时间
右下角:LF(Late Finish):活动的最晚完成时间Using the Critical Path to Shorten a Project Schedule
Three main techniques for shortening schedules - Shortening durations of critical activities/tasks by adding more resources or changing their scope / 通过增加更多资源或改变范围来缩短关键活动/任务的持续时间
- 赶工 Crashing activities by obtaining the greatest amount of schedule compression for the least incremental cost / 通过以最小的增量成本获得最大的进度压缩来压缩活动(权衡成本和进度以最小成本获取最大进度)
- 快速跟进 Fast tracking activities by doing them in parallel or overlapping them / 通过并行执行或重叠执行活动来加快活动。缺点是可能最后延误项目的进度。
Critical Chain Scheduling
- a method of scheduling that considers limited resources when creating a project schedule and includes buffers to protect the project completion date / 一种在创建项目进度表时考虑有限资源的调度方法,并包括缓冲区以保护项目完成日期
- Uses the Theory of Constraints (TOC) / 使用约束理论(TOC)
- a management philosophy developed by Eliyahu M. Goldratt and introduced in his book The Goal. / 由 Eliyahu M. Goldratt 开发的管理哲学,并在他的书《目标》中介绍
- Attempts to minimize multitasking / 尝试最小化多任务处理
- A buffer is additional time to complete a task / 缓冲区是完成任务的额外时间
- Murphy’s Law states that if something can go wrong, it will / 墨菲定律规定,如果有什么事情可能出错,它就会出错
- Parkinson’s Law states that work expands to fill the time allowed / 帕金森定律规定,工作会扩展到填满允许的时间
- In traditional estimates, people often add a buffer to each task and use it if it’s needed or not / 在传统估算中,人们经常为每个任务添加一个缓冲区,并在需要或不需要时使用它
- Critical chain scheduling removes buffers from individual tasks and instead creates / 关键链调度从个别任务中删除缓冲区,而是创建
- a project buffer or additional time added before the project’s due date / 项目缓冲区或在项目到期日期之前添加的额外时间
- feeding buffers or additional time added before tasks on the critical path / 汇入缓冲或在关键路径上的任务之前添加的额外时间
FB(feed buffer)是在那些前导是非关键路径任务的关键链任务之前增加的缓冲时间
PERT(Program Evaluation and Review Technique)
PERT is a network analysis technique used to estimate project duration when there is a high degree of uncertainty about the individual activity duration estimates / PERT 是一种网络分析技术,用于在对个别活动持续时间估算存在高度不确定性时估算项目持续时间
- PERT uses probabilistic time estimates / PERT 使用概率时间估算
- duration estimates based on using optimistic, most likely, and pessimistic estimates of activity durations, or a three-point estimate / 持续时间估算是基于使用活动持续时间的乐观、最可能和悲观估算,或三点估算
- $TE = (O + 4M + P) / 6$
Controlling the Schedule / 控制进度
- Goals are to know the status of the schedule, influence factors that cause schedule changes, determine that the schedule has changed, and manage changes when they occur / 目标是了解进度的状态,影响导致进度变更的因素,确定进度已经发生变化,并在发生变化时管理变化
- Tools and techniques include
- Progress reports / 进度报告
- A schedule change control system / 进度变更控制系统
- Project management software, including schedule comparison charts like the tracking Gantt chart / 项目管理软件,包括进度比较图表,如跟踪甘特图
- Variance analysis, such as analyzing float or slack / 方差分析,如分析浮动或松弛
- Performance management, such as earned value (chapter 7) / 绩效管理,如挣值(第 7 章)
Suggestions for Controlling the Schedule
- Perform reality checks on schedules / 对进度进行现实检查
- Allow for contingencies / 为意外情况留有余地
- Don’t plan for everyone to work at 100% capacity all the time / 不要计划每个人都全天候工作
- Hold progress meetings with stakeholders and be clear and honest in communicating schedule issues / 与干系人举行进度会议,并在沟通进度问题时清晰和诚实
chapter 7 项目成本管理
What is Cost and Project Cost Management?
Cost is a resource sacrificed or foregone to achieve a specific objective or something given up in exchange / 成本是为实现特定目标而牺牲或放弃的资源,或者是为了交换而放弃的东西,通常用货币单位(如美元)来衡量
Project cost management includes the processes required to ensure that the project is completed within an approved budget / 项目成本管理包括确保项目在批准的预算内完成所需的过程
Project Cost Management Processes
- Planning cost management :determining the policies, procedures, and documentation that will be used for planning, executing, and controlling project cost. / 计划成本管理:确定将用于规划、执行和控制项目成本的政策、程序和文档
- outputs: 成本管理计划
- Estimating costs: developing an approximation or estimate of the costs of the resources needed to complete a project / 估算成本:开发完成项目所需资源的成本的近似值或估算
- outputs: 活动成本估算、估算的基础、更新的项目文档
- Determining the budget: allocating the overall cost estimate to individual work items to establish a baseline for measuring performance / 确定预算:将整体成本估算分配给各个工作项,以建立衡量绩效的基准
- outputs: 成本基准、项目资金需求和更新的项目文档
- Controlling costs: controlling changes to the project budget / 控制成本:控制对项目预算的更改
- Profits are revenues minus expenditures / 利润是收入减去支出
- Profit margin is the ratio of revenues to profits / 利润率是收入与利润的比率
- Life cycle costing considers the total cost of ownership, or development plus support costs, for a project / 生命周期成本考虑项目的所有权总成本,即开发加支持成本
- Cash flow analysis determines the estimated annual costs and benefits for a project and the resulting annual cash flow / 现金流分析确定项目的预计年度成本和收益以及由此产生的年度现金流
Types of Costs and Benefits
- Tangible costs or benefits are those costs or benefits that an organization can easily measure in dollars / 有形成本或收益是组织可以轻松用美元衡量的成本或收益
- Intangible costs or benefits are costs or benefits that are difficult to measure in monetary terms / 无形成本或收益是难以用货币衡量的成本或收益
- Direct costs are costs that can be directly related to producing the products and services of the project / 直接成本是可以直接与项目的产品和服务相关联的成本
- Indirect costs are costs that are not directly related to the products or services of the project, but are indirectly related to performing the project / 间接成本是与项目的产品或服务无直接关系,但与执行项目间接相关的成本
- Sunk cost is money that has been spent in the past; when deciding what projects to invest in or continue, you should not include sunk costs / 沉没成本是过去花费的钱;在决定投资或继续哪些项目时,不应包括沉没成本
Planning Cost Management / 计划成本管理
- The project team uses expert judgment, analytical techniques, and meetings to develop the cost management plan / 项目团队使用专家判断、分析技术和会议来制定成本管理计划
- A cost management plan includes:
- Project managers must take cost estimates seriously if they want to complete projects within budget constraints / 如果项目经理希望在预算约束内完成项目,他们必须认真对待成本估算
- It’s important to know the types of cost estimates, how to prepare cost estimates, and typical problems associated with IT cost estimates / 了解成本估算的类型、如何准备成本估算以及与 IT 成本估算相关的典型问题是很重要的
Types of Cost Estimates
- Rough order of magnitude (ROM) / 粗粒度估算
- Budgetary estimate / 预算估算
- Definitive estimate / 确定性估算
Cost Estimating Tools and Techniques
- Basic tools and techniques for cost estimates:
- Analogous or top-down estimates: use the actual cost of a previous, similar project as the basis for estimating the cost of the current project / 类比或自上而下估算:使用先前类似项目的实际成本作为估算当前项目成本的基础
- Bottom-up estimates: involve estimating individual work items or activities and summing them to get a project total / 自下而上估算:涉及估算单个工作项或活动,并将它们相加以获得项目总数
- Parametric modeling uses project characteristics (parameters) in a mathematical model to estimate project costs / 参数建模使用项目特征(参数)在数学模型中估算项目成本
Typical Problems with IT Cost Estimates
- Estimates are done too quickly / 估算速度太快
- People lack estimating experience / 人们缺乏估算经验
- Human beings are biased toward underestimation / 人类倾向于低估
- Management desires accuracy / 管理层希望准确
Determining the Budget / 确定预算
- Cost budgeting involves allocating the project cost estimate to individual work items over time / 成本预算涉及将项目成本估算分配给各个工作项
- The WBS is a required input to the cost budgeting process since it defines the work items / WBS 是成本预算过程的必需输入,因为它定义了工作项
- Important goal is to produce a cost baseline / 重要目标是制定成本基准
- a time-phased budget that project managers use to measure and monitor cost performance / 项目经理用来衡量和监控成本绩效的分时预算
Controlling Costs / 控制成本
- Monitoring cost performance / 监控成本绩效
- Ensuring that only appropriate project changes are included in a revised cost baseline / 确保只有适当的项目变更包含在修订的成本基准中
- Informing project stakeholders of authorized changes to the project that will affect costs / 通知项目干系人授权的项目变更将影响成本
Earned Value Management (EVM)
- EVM is a project performance measurement technique that integrates scope, time, and cost data / 挣值管理是一种项目绩效测量技术,它整合了范围、时间和成本数据
- Given a baseline (original plan plus approved changes), you can determine how well the project is meeting its goals / 给定基线(原始计划加上批准的变更),您可以确定项目是否达到了其目标
- You must enter actual information periodically to use EVM / 您必须定期输入实际信息以使用挣值管理
- More and more organizations around the world are using EVM to help control project costs / 越来越多的组织在全球范围内使用挣值管理来帮助控制项目成本
EVM Terms
- The planned value (PV), formerly called the budgeted cost of work scheduled (BCWS), also called the budget, is that portion of the approved total cost estimate planned to be spent on an activity during a given period / 计划值(PV),以前称为计划工作的预算成本(BCWS),也称为预算,是计划在给定期间内花费在活动上的批准总成本估算的部分
- Actual cost (AC), formerly called actual cost of work performed (ACWP), is the total of direct and indirect costs incurred in accomplishing work on an activity during a given period / 实际成本(AC),以前称为实际工作成本(ACWP),是在给定期间内完成活动工作所发生的直接和间接成本的总和
- The earned value (EV), formerly called the budgeted cost of work performed (BCWP), is an estimate of the value of the physical work actually completed / 挣值(EV),以前称为实际工作成本(BCWP),是实际完成的物理工作价值的估计
- EV is based on the original planned costs for the project or activity and the rate at which the team is completing work on the project or activity to date / EV 基于项目或活动的原始计划成本以及团队截至目前完成项目或活动工作的速度
- Rate of performance (RP) , is the ratio of actual work completed to the percentage of work planned to have been completed at any given time during the life of the project or activity / 完成百分比(RP),是实际完成的工作量与计划在项目或活动生命周期的任何给定时间内应完成的工作量的百分比之比
- cost variance (CV) 成本偏差,是$挣值-实际成本$。如果CV为正,表示项目花费低于预算,如果CV为负,表示项目花费高于预算
- schedule variance (SV) 进度偏差,是$挣值-计划值$。如果SV为正,表示项目进度超前于计划,如果SV为负,表示项目进度落后于计划
- cost performance index (CPI) 成本绩效指数,是$挣值/实际成本$。CPI大于 1 表示项目花费低于预算,CPI小于 1 表示项目花费高于预算
- schedule performance index (SPI) 进度绩效指数,是$挣值/计划值$。SPI大于 1 表示项目进度超前于计划,SPI小于 1 表示项目进度落后于计划
- Budget at Completion (BAC) 完工预算,是项目的总预算,BAC = 累计PV
- Estimate at Completion (EAC) 完工估算,是完成项目所需的预计总成本。EAC = BAC/CPI
- Estimate time to Completion(ETTC) 完工时间估算 = OTE(original time estimate) / SPI
Project Portfolio Management / 项目组合管理
- Many organizations collect and control an entire suite of projects or investments as one set of interrelated activities in a portfolio / 许多组织将整套项目或投资作为一个投资组合中的一组相互关联的活动进行收集和控制
- Five levels for project portfolio management / 项目组合管理的五个级别,从最低到最高:
- Put all your projects in one database / 将所有项目放在一个数据库中
- Prioritize the projects in your database / 为数据库中的项目设置优先级
- Divide your projects into two or three budgets based on type of investment / 根据投资类型将项目分为两个或三个预算
- Automate the repository / 自动化存储库
- Apply modern portfolio theory, including risk-return tools that map project risk on a curve / 应用现代投资组合理论,包括将项目风险映射到曲线上的风险回报工具
chapter 8 项目质量管理
质量的定义:
- 反映尸体满足明确和隐含需求的能力特性总和(ISO8042:1994)。
- 对一组满足需求固有特性的程度(ISO9000:2000)。
什么是项目质量管理?
项目质量管理的目的:确保项目满足他所应满足的需求。
包括三个主要过程:
- 计划质量管理(plan quality management)
包括确认与项目有关的质量需求和标准以及如何满足他们。- 计划质量管理的主要输出结果为:质量管理计划、过程改进计划、质量度量、质量检查表和项目文档更新。
- 度量标准是一个测量的标准。常见的度量标准包括产品故障率、产品和服务的可行性以及客户满意度。
- 实施质量保证
包括对整体项目绩效进行定期的评估以确保项目能够满足相关的质量标准。质量保证过程包括对整个项目全生命周期过程承担质量责任。高层管理应带头强调全体员工在质量保证活动中发挥作用,尤其是高层管理要发挥作用。- 这个阶段的主要输出结果是:变更请求、项目管理计划更新和组织过程资产更新。
- 控制质量
包括监控特定的项目结果,确保他们遵循了相关质量标准,并确定提高整体质量的方法。常与质量管理所用的工具和技术密切相关,如:帕累托图、质量控制图和统计抽样。- 主要输出结果:质量控制度量、有效的变更、有效的可交付成功、工作绩效信息、变更请求、项目管理计划更新、项目文档更新和组织过程资产更新。
计划质量管理
确保项目质量管理的第一步就是计划。计划质量管理意味着预测形势和准备措施以获得需要的结果的能力。
现代质量管理的要点是,通过选择合适的材料、培训与教导人们的质量观念、计划一个确保产生合适结果的过程来预防缺陷。在项目质量计划中,重要的是确定每个独特项目的相关质量标准,把质量设计到项目的产品和管理项目所设计的过程之中。
实验设计是一种质量计划技术,用以帮助确认哪个变量对一个过程的整体结果影响最大。了解哪个变量影响过程结果是质量计划的重要部分。
在质量计划中,描述能够直接促成满足客户需求的关键因素是重要的。组织的质量方针、特定项目的范围说明书和产品描述以及相关标准和规章制度都是质量计划过程的重要输入。
IT 项目中影响质量的重要范围内容包括:
- 功能性
- 功能性是一个系统执行其预定功能的程度。
- 特色 / feature 是吸引用户的系统特性。
- 明确系统的哪些功能和特色是必须具备的,哪些是可选的,非常重要。
- 系统输出
- 系统产生的界面和报告。
- 性能
- 一个产品或服务如何有效执行客户预期的功能。
- 可靠性
- 一个产品或服务在正常条件下表现出符合预期情况的能力。
- 可维护性
- 进行产品维护的容易程度。
项目经理对项目的质量管理负根本责任。
实施质量保证
质量保证(quality assurances)包括一个项目相应质量标准的所有相关活动。另一个目标的是不断改进质量。
执行质量保证的重要输入是质量管理计划、过程改进计划、质量度量、质量控制度量和项目文档。
- 持续改善(kaizen):更好的改善和改变。
- 精益(lean):实现客户价值最大化,同时尽量减少浪费。
质量保证的工具
- 质量计划中的几个工具也可用于质量保证,如实验设计(书上只提到这个)。
- 基准比较法(benchmarking):通过将特定的项目实践或产品特性与那些在项目实施组织内部或者外部的其他项目或产品的相应特性进行比较,从中产生质量改进的思想。
- 质量保证的一个重要工具是质量审计(quality audit)。质量审计是对特定质量管理活动的结构化审查,帮助确认所取得的经验教训,并可以改进当前或者未来项目的实施情况。
- 验收决策(acceptance decision):确定作为项目一部分的产品和服务是否通过验收的决策。
- 返工(rework):为了使得被拒收的项目达到和满足产品需求、规范或者干系人的其他期望而采取的行动。常常需要请求变更和有效的缺陷修复。
- 过程调整(process adjustment):根据质量控制的度量结果,纠正或防止进一步的质量问题而做的调整。过程调整通常根据质量控制的度量结果来建立,经常导致质量基线、组织过程资产和项目管理计划的更新。
质量控制的工具和技术
- 因果图 cause-and-effect diagram / 鱼骨图 (fishbone diagram)/ 石川图(Ishikawa diagram)
- 控制图 control chart
这里有一个 seven run rule 七点运行法则 指出:如果质量控制图上连续的7个点都在平均值以下、平均值以上,或者所有点都呈现出上升或者下降的趋势,那么需要检查这个过程是否有 非随机 问题。 - 检查表 checksheet
- 散点图 scatter diagram
- 直方图 histogram
- 帕托累(怕拖累)图 Pareto diagram
- 流程图 flowchart
- 运行图 run chart
Statistical Sampling 抽样统计
- 统计抽样涉及从感兴趣的总体中选择一部分进行检查
- 样本的大小取决于您希望样本的代表性
- 样本量公式:
Sample size = $0.25×(可信度因子/可接受误差)^2$
常用的可信度因子six sigma
Six Sigma is “a comprehensive and flexible system for achieving, sustaining, and maximizing business success. Six Sigma is uniquely driven by close understanding of customer needs, disciplined use of facts, data, and statistical analysis, and diligent attention to managing, improving, and reinventing business processes” / 六西格玛是一种全面灵活的系统,用于实现、维持和最大化业务成功。六西格玛是通过对客户需求的深入了解、对事实、数据和统计分析的纪律性使用以及对管理、改进和重塑业务流程的认真关注而推动的。
The term sigma means standard deviation(标准差).Standard deviation measures how much variation exists in a distribution of data
Standard deviation is a key factor in determining the acceptable number of defective units found in a population
6 Sigma 的完美目标:
- Six Sigma projects strive for no more than 3.4 defects per million opportunities, yet this number is confusing to many statisticians
DMAIC 方法:
六西格码项目通常遵循称为 DMAIC 的五阶段改进流程。DMAIC 是一个系统的、闭环的持续改进流程,具有科学性,基于事实。
- Define 定义:定义问题/机会、流程和客户要求
- Measure 测量:定义度量值,然后收集、编译和显示数据
- Analyze 分析:仔细检查流程细节以寻找改进机会
- Improve 改进:生成解决方案和想法以改进问题
- Control 控制:跟踪和验证改进的稳定性和解决方案的可预测性
6 Sigma 组织结构
6σ管理需要一套合理、高效的人员组织结构来保证改进活动得以顺利实现。在过去,之所以有80%的全面质量管理(Total Quality Management,TQM)实施者失败,最大原因就是缺少这样一个人员组织结构。
- 执行负责人
六西格玛6σ管理的执行负责人由一位副总裁以上的高层领导担任。这是一个至关重要的职位,要求具有较强的综合协调能力的人才能胜任。其具体职责是:为项目设定目标、方向和范围;协调项目所需资源;处理各项目小组之间的重叠和纠纷,加强项目小组之间的沟通等。 - 绿带(Green Belt)
绿带的工作是兼职的,他们经过培训后,将负责一些难度较小项目小组,或成为其他项目小组的成员。 - 黑带(Black Belt)
黑带来源于军事术语,指那些具有精湛技艺和本领的人。黑带是6σ变革的中坚力量。对黑带的认证通常由外部咨询公司配合公司内部有关部门来完成。黑带由企业内部选拔出来,全职实施6σ管理,在接受培训取得认证之后,被授予黑带称号,担任项目小组负责人,领导项目小组实施流程变革,同时负责培训绿带。黑带的候选人应该具备大学数学和定量分析方面的知识基础,需要具有较为丰富的工作经验。 - 黑带大师
这是6σ管理专家的最高级别,其一般是统计方面的专家,负责在6σ管理中提供技术指导。
Testing
应在 IT 产品开发生命周期的几乎每个阶段进行测试。
types of testing
- Unit testing tests each individual component (often a program) to ensure it is as defect-free as possible / 单元测试测试每个单独的组件(通常是一个程序),以确保尽可能无缺陷
- Integration testing occurs between unit and system testing to test functionally grouped components / 集成测试发生在单元测试和系统测试之间,以测试功能分组的组件
- System testing tests the entire system as one entity / 系统测试将整个系统作为一个实体进行测试
- User acceptance testing is an independent test performed by end users prior to accepting the delivered system / 用户验收测试是由最终用户在接受交付的系统之前进行的独立测试
现代质量管理
- Requires customer satisfaction / 需要客户满意度
- Prefers prevention to inspection / 更喜欢预防而不是检查
- Recognizes management responsibility for quality / 认识到质量的管理责任
值得注意的质量专家
- Deming 以其重建日本的工作和他的 14 点管理而闻名
- Juran 撰写了《质量控制手册》和《质量改进的十个步骤》
- Crosby 撰写了《Quality is Free》一书,并建议组织努力实现零缺陷
- 石川馨 Kaoru Ishikawa 提出了质量圈 quality circle 和鱼骨图的概念
- 田口 Genichi Taguchi 开发了优化工程实验过程的方法
- Feigenbaum 提出了全面质量控制 TQC 的概念
提高 IT 项目质量
Several suggestions for improving quality for IT projects include: - Establish leadership that promotes quality / 建立促进质量的领导
- Understand the cost of quality / 了解质量的成本
- Focus on organizational influences and workplace factors that affect quality / 关注影响质量的组织影响和工作场所因素
- Follow maturity models / 遵循成熟度模型
Leadership
A large percentage of quality problems are associated with management, not technical issues. / 大部分质量问题与管理有关,而不是技术问题。
The Cost of Quality
The cost of quality is the cost of conformance plus the cost of nonconformance / 质量成本是符合成本加上不符合成本
- Conformance (符合成本)means delivering products that meet requirements and fitness for use / 交付符合要求和适用性的产品
- Cost of nonconformance (不符合成本)means taking responsibility for failures or not meeting quality expectations / 承担失败或未达到质量期望的责任
Five Cost Categories Related to Quality
- Prevention cost 预防成本: Cost of planning and executing a project so it is error-free or within an acceptable error range / 计划和执行项目以使其无错误或在可接受的错误范围内的成本
- Appraisal cost 评估成本: Cost of evaluating processes and their outputs to ensure quality / 评估过程及其输出的成本以确保质量
- Internal failure cost 内部故障成本: Cost incurred to correct an identified defect before the customer receives the product / 在客户收到产品之前纠正已识别的缺陷所产生的成本
- External failure cost 外部故障成本: Cost that relates to all errors not detected and corrected before delivery to the customer / 与交付给客户之前未检测和纠正的所有错误有关的成本
- Measurement and test equipment costs 测量测试设备成本: Capital cost of equipment used to perform prevention and appraisal activities / 用于执行预防和评估活动的设备的资本成本
Organizational Influences and Workplace Factors
专用的工作空间和安静的工作环境是提高程序员工作效率的关键因素Expectations and Cultural Differences in Quality
项目经理必须了解和管理利益相关者的期望。期望还因以下因素而异: - 组织文化
- 地理区域
Maturity Models 成熟度模型
定义: Maturity models are frameworks for helping organizations improve their processes and systems. / 成熟度模型是帮助组织改进其流程和系统的框架
The Software Quality Function Deployment Model focuses on defining user requirements and planning software projects. / 软件质量功能部署模型侧重于定义用户需求和规划软件项目。
The Software Engineering Institute’s Capability Maturity Model Integration(CMMI) is a process improvement approach that provides organizations with the essential elements of effective processes. / 软件工程研究所的能力成熟度模型集成是一种过程改进方法,为组织提供了有效流程的基本要素。
CMII
CMMI levels, from lowest to highest, are:
- Incomplete / 不完整
- Performed / 执行
- Managed / 管理
- Defined / 定义
- Quantitatively Managed / 量化管理
- Optimizing / 优化
Companies may not get to bid on government projects unless they have a CMMI Level 3
PMI’s Maturity Model
PMI 于 2003 年 12 月发布了组织项目管理成熟度模型 (OPM3)
chapter 9 项目人力资源管理
什么是项目人力资源管理
Making the most effective use of human and physical resources involved with the project. / 项目人力资源管理包含使项目涉及的人员得到最有效利用的全部过程。
人力资源管理包括所有项目干系人:赞助商、客户、项目团队成员、后勤员工、项目供应商等。
项目人力资源管理包括下列4个过程:
- 人力资源规划
- outputs: 人力资源管理计划
- 组建(accuqire)项目团队
- outputs: 项目人员分配、资源日历、项目管理计划更新
- 建设项目团队
- outputs: 团队绩效评估、企业环境因素更新
- 管理项目团队
- outputs: 请求变更、项目管理计划更新、项目文档更新、企业环境因素更新和组织过程资产更新
管理员工的关键所在
motivation theories 激励理论
- intrinsic motivation 内在动机
extrinsic motivation 外在动机
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs 马斯洛的需求层次理论
Maslow developed a hierarchy of needs which states that people’s behaviors are guided or motivated by a sequence of needs. / 马斯洛提出了一个需求层次理论,该理论认为人们的行为是由一系列需求引导或激励的。
满足团队成员的个人目标和需求能够产生积极的动力,促进团队发挥最大的作用。Herzberg’s Motivational and Hygiene (激励-保健)Factors \ 赫茨伯格的激励-保健因素理论
其将工作动机分为激励因素和保健因素:
motivational factors: achievement, recognition, the work itself, responsibility, advancement, and growth, which produce job satisfaction 能产生工作满意度的因素,如成就、认可、工作本身、责任、晋升和成长。
hygiene factors: cause dissatisfaction if not present, but do not motivate workers to do more. Examples include larger salaries, more supervision, and a more attractive work environment. 没满足会造成员工不满的因素,满足了也不会激励。例如更高的薪水、更多的监督和更有吸引力的工作环境。
McClelland’s Acquired-Needs(获得-需求) Theory \ 麦克莱兰的获得-需求(后天需要)理论
McClelland 认为个人的特定需求是通过后天培养或者是长期学习、由生活经验形成的。获得需求理论包括:成就需求、归属需求、权力需求。一般情况下,有一种或者两种需求占个人需求的主要地位。
Achievement (nAch): Achievers like challenging projects with achievable goals and lots of feedback.(喜欢具有挑战性的项目,有可实现的目标和大量的反馈)
- Affiliation (nAff): People with high nAff desire harmonious relationships and need to feel accepted by others, so managers should try to create a cooperative work environment for them. (需要和谐的关系,需要被他人接受,所以经理应该为他们创造一个合作的工作环境)
- Power (nPow): People with a need for power desire either personal power (not good) or institutional power (good for the organization). Provide institutional power seekers with management opportunities (给他们管理别人的机会)
McGregor’s Theory X and Y 麦克格雷戈的X理论和Y理论
- 相信 X 理论的经理认为:workers dislike and avoid work, so managers must use coercion, threats and various control schemes. 员工不喜欢并且设法逃避工作,所以经理必须使用强制、威胁和各种控制方案。
Y 理论(也叫人际关系理论): individuals consider work as natural as play or rest and enjoy the satisfaction of esteem and self-actualization needs. 人非天生懒惰和不喜欢工作,只是有时需要放松和休息。应该如马斯洛所说,满足员工的需求,使他们能够实现自我价值。这也是 McGregor 所倡导的。
Z 理论:一种新的管理方法,参考日本激励员工的方法,强调信任、质量、集体决策和文化价值,不同于 X 和 Y 只强调管理者如何看待员工,Z 也强调员工如何看待管理者。应该相信员工们能最大限度发挥能力去做好他们的工作,只要他们相信管理者能支持他们并为他们谋福利。(by William Ouchi)
influence and power 影响和权力
Influence
9种项目经理可用的 influence:
- Authority 权威: the legitimate hierarchical right to issue orders 发布命令
- Assignment 委派: the project manager’s perceived ability to influence a worker’s later work assignments 影响员工日后工作指派内容
- Budget 预算: the project manager’s perceived ability to authorize others’ use of discretionary funds 授权某人自由支配预算
- Promotion 升迁: the ability to improve a worker’s position 提拔员工
- Money 金钱: the ability to increase a worker’s pay and benefits
- Penalty 处罚: the project manager’s ability to cause punishment 惩罚/免除惩罚
- Work challenge: the ability to assign work that capitalizes on a worker’s enjoyment of doing a particular task 使员工能够享受工作
- Expertise 专长: the project manager’s perceived special knowledge that others deem important 项目经理的专业知识
- Friendship 友谊: the ability to establish friendly personal relationships between the project manager and others
注:经理应更应该用 Expertise、work challenge 来影响员工,不应太过于依赖:Authority、Money、Penalty
Power
Power is the potential ability to influence behavior to get people to do things they would not otherwise do. /
权力是影响行为的潜在能力,让人们做他们本来不会做的事情。
五种权力类型:
- Coercive 强制权力:用处罚强迫人
- Legitimate 法定权力:通过职位赋予的权力去指挥员工做事。类似于影响的 Authority
- Expert 专家权力:利用个人知识让人改变行为
- Reward 奖励:很多专家认为只有几种特定的奖励(工作挑战、成就感和工作认可),才能真正激发员工改变行为或者努力工作
- Referent 感召:建立在个人魅力基础上,让人按照他们说的去做。
Covey and Improving Effectiveness 柯维和提高效率
经理可以应用柯维的七种习惯来提供工作效率:
- Be proactive 积极主动
- Begin with the end in mind 从目标出发
- Put first things first 要事第一
- Think win/win 双赢思维
- empathic listening 移情倾听 Seek first to understand, then to be understood 先求同情,再求理解。(这一点可以区分好的和坏的经理)
- Synergize 协同(译为:统合综效):指整体大于部分的概念,1+1>2
- Sharpen the saw 磨快锯子,不断更新(从物质上精神上心智上以及社会/感情上更新自我 )
注:实践 empathic listening -> 让别人乐意与你交谈 -> 要建立友好关系(rapport,一种和谐一致协调的关系)-> 使用 mirroring 方式,the matching of certain behaviors of the other person in order to create rapport.(模仿对方的某些行为以建立和谐关系,人们倾向于喜欢那些和自己相似的人)
emotional intelligence 情商
leadership 领导
人力资源规划
项目组织结构图
- OBS(Organizational breakdown structure)组织分解结构:一种特殊的组织结构图,显示每个组织单元负责哪项工作。
Responsibility Assignment Matrices(RAM)责任分配矩阵
是将 WBS 中描述的项目工作和 OBS 中负责实施的人员匹配起来的矩阵。
RAM 可以包括项目中的干系人,有的组织用 RACI 表来表示项目干系人的四种角色: - R = responsibility 责任人,谁执行这个任务
- A = accountability, only one A per task 批准人,谁签署这个任务谁负全责
- C = consultation 审核人,谁拥有完成这个任务的必要信息
- I = informed 告知人:谁需要被告知这个项目的最终情况
Note:需要注意的是,有些人把“负责任”和“可追究责任”的定义弄反了。负责任的人是执行任务的人,而可追究责任的人是对任务的结果负责的人。Staffing Management Plans and Resource Histograms 人员管理计划和资源直方图
- staffing management plan :describes when and how people will be added to and taken off(调离)the project team. / 描述了何时以及如何将人员添加到项目团队中以及何时调离项目团队。
- resource histogram(直方图):is a column chart that shows the number of resources assigned to a project over time. / 显示了随着时间的推移分配给项目的资源数量。
组建 Acquiring 项目团队
- Resource Assignment 资源分配
- Resource Loading 资源负荷
- Resource Leveling 资源平衡
Resource Assignment 资源分配
Resource Loading 资源负荷
定义: - the amount of individual resources an existing schedule requires during specific time periods / 现有计划在特定时间段内所需的单个资源量
- 帮助项目经理了解项目对组织资源和人力资源的需求,常用直方图绘制不同时期的资源负荷所需。
- Overallocation 意味着在给定时间内分配的资源超过了可用资源,下面简单的柱状图展示 Overallocation。
Resource Leveling 资源平衡
- 定义:是一种通过延迟任务来解决资源冲突的技术,主要目的是更平滑的资源使用分配并减少过度分配。
如下图:如果所有任务都一起开始,则会出现资源 Overallocation,可以把 C 任务推后两天做。
- 好处:当资源在更稳定的基础上使用时,它们需要更少的管理。
它可能使项目经理能够使用 just-in-time 的策略来使用分包商或其他昂贵的资源。这减少了项目人员和财务部的问题。增加或者减少人力资源会带来混乱。这通常会提高士气,人人都喜欢安稳工作。
项目管理软件可以自动平衡资源,但是它通常会延迟项目完成时间。
建设项目团队
主要目标:to help people work together more effectively to improve project performance / 帮助人们更有效地协作以提高项目绩效。成功地完成大多数项目需要团队合作
Tuckman Model of Team Development
- Forming 成形:这阶段包括团队成员的引进,实际工作少。
- Storming 震荡:各成员具有不同观点人们互相试探,伴有冲突
- Norming 规范:各成员形成了一种通用的工作方法
- Performing 执行:强调团队目标的达成,建立彼此间的忠诚。
- Adjourning 终止:项目组成功达到目标、团队解体
Training
:Training can help people understand themselves, each other, and how to work better in teams / 培训可以帮助人们了解自己、彼此以及如何更好地在团队中工作。团队建设活动
两种常见的团建活动方法有体能挑战和心理偏好指示工具。
3种常见的团队建设方法:
- MBTI 职业性格测试
- E/I: Extraversion/Introversion 外向/内向
- S/N: Sensing/Intuition 感觉/直觉
- T/F: Thinking/Feeling 思考/情感
- J/P: Judging/Perceiving 判断/感知
- Social Styles Profile 社交形态
- Driver 驱动型
- Expressive 表达型
- Analytical 分析型
- Amiable 和蔼型
对立象限的人(Driver 和 Amiable、Expressive 和 Analytical)可能难以相处
- DISC Profile 行为风格
- 基于团队的奖励和认可系统可以促进团队合作
- 专注于奖励实现特定目标的团队
- 为团队成员留出时间相互指导和帮助,以实现项目目标和开发人力资源
管理项目团队
项目经理必须领导他们的团队执行各种项目活动,并且在评估团队绩效和相关信息之后,项目经理必须做出决定:是否需要对项目进行更改、是否建议采取纠正或预防措施、如果需要对项目管理计划或组织过程资产进行更新。管理项目团队的工具和方法
- Observation and conversation 观察和交流
- Project performance appraisals 项目绩效评估
- Interpersonal skills 人际关系技能
- Conflict management 冲突管理
- Confrontation 对抗: Directly face a conflict using a problem-solving approach
- Compromise 妥协: Use a give-and-take approach
- Smoothing 平滑: De-emphasize areas of difference and emphasize areas of agreement
- Forcing 强迫: The win-lose approach
- Withdrawal 退出: Retreat or withdraw from an actual or potential disagreement
- Collaborating 合作: Decision makers incorporate different viewpoints and insights to develop consensus and commitment
冲突也可以是好的。
冲突通常会产生重要的结果,例如新的想法、更好的选择以及更加努力和协作工作的动力 - Group thinking 群体思维:符合群体的价值观或道德标准。如果没有相互冲突的观点,群体思维就会发展。
研究表明,与任务相关的冲突通常会提高团队绩效,但情绪冲突通常会压低团队绩效
- Issue log 问题日志
chapter 10 项目沟通管理 Project Communications Management
项目沟通管理:确保项目信息能够及时并适当生成收集发送存储和部署,下面是三个主要过程: - Planning communications management 沟通管理计划:Determining the information and communications needs of the stakeholders / 确定涉众的信息和沟通需求,谁需要什么,何时如何给他
- outputs: 沟通管理计划、项目文档更新
- Managing communications 沟通管理:reating, distributing, storing, retrieving, and disposing of project communications based on the communications management plan / 根据沟通管理计划创建、分发、存储、检索和处置项目沟通
- outputs: 项目沟通、项目文档更新、项目管理计划更新、 组织过程资产更新
- Controlling communications 沟通控制:Monitoring and controlling project communications to ensure that stakeholder communication needs are met / 监视和控制项目沟通,以确保满足干系人的沟通需求
- outputs: 工作绩效信息、请求变更、项目文档更新和组织过程资产更新
- outputs: 工作绩效信息、请求变更、项目文档更新和组织过程资产更新
Keys to Good Communications
- Need to focus on group and individual communication needs / 需要关注团队和个人的沟通需求
- Use formal and informal methods for communicating / 使用正式和非正式的沟通方法
- Distribute important information in an effective and timely manner / 以有效和及时的方式发布重要信息
- Set the stage for communicating bad news / 为坏消息搭建语境
- Determine the number of communication channels / 确定沟通渠道的数量
Understanding Group and Individual Communication Needs / 了解团队和个人的沟通需求
你不能假设原本计划花费一个人两个月时间的任务可以由两个人在一个月内完成,同样要理解个人和团队的喜好,PM 要意识到自己的沟通风格是否契合团队。另外,接收方很少完全按照发送方的意图来解释信息、地理位置和文化背景等都会影响着项目沟通的复杂性Importance of Face-to-Face Communication / 面对面沟通的重要性(用正式和非正式的沟通方法)
:好好利用非正式的面对面交流,A person’s tone of voice and body language say a lot about how he or she really feels / 一个人的语气和肢体语言能够表达他或她真正的感受Personal Preferences Affect Communication Needs / 个人偏好影响沟通需求
- 内向的人喜欢更私密的交流,而外向的人喜欢在公共场合讨论事情
- 直觉型的人喜欢了解大局,而感性的人需要一步一步的细节
- 思考者想知道决策背后的逻辑,而感性的人想知道事情是如何影响他们个人的
- 判断型的人被驱使去完成最后期限,而感知型的人在制定和执行计划方面需要更多的帮助
Distributing Information in an Effective and Timely Manner / 以有效和及时的方式发布信息
- Don’t bury crucial information / 不要掩盖重要信息
- Don’t be afraid to report bad information / 不要害怕报告坏消息
- Oral communication via meetings and informal talks helps bring important information—good and bad—out into the open / 通过会议和非正式谈话的口头沟通有助于将重要信息(好的和坏的)公之于众
Setting the Stage for Communicating Bad News / 为坏消息搭建语境
Determining the Number of Communications Channels / 确定沟通渠道的数量
Number of communications channels = , where n is the number of people involved
Planning Communications Management / 沟通管理规划
Every project should include some type of communications management plan, a document that guides project communications / 每个项目都应包括某种类型的沟通管理计划,这是一份指导项目沟通的文件。
对于小的项目它可以是团队contract合同 的一部分,对于大的项目它必须是单独文档。
应该有以下部分:
- Stakeholder communications requirements / 干系人的沟通需求
- Information to be communicated, including format, content, and level of detail / 需要沟通的信息,包括语言、内容、格式、详细程度
- Who will receive the information and who will produce it / 产生和接收信息的个人或小组
- Suggested methods or technologies for conveying the information / 传达信息的推荐方式或技术
- Frequency of communication / 沟通频率
- Escalation procedures for resolving issues / 为解决问题所需的向上提报程序
- Revision procedures for updating the communications management plan / 更新沟通管理计划的再版程序
- A glossary of common terminology / 常用术语表
干系人沟通分析示例,每个干系人都有能获得相应书面信息的记录
Managing Communications / 管理沟通
- Managing communications is a large part of a project manager’s job / 管理沟通是项目经理工作的重要组成部分
- Getting project information to the right people at the right time and in a useful format is just as important as developing the information in the first place / 在正确的时间以及有用的格式将项目信息传递给正确的人员和团队成员,这和首次开发信息一样重要
- Important considerations include the use of technology, the appropriate methods and media to use, and performance reporting / 重要的考虑因素包括技术的使用、适当的方法和媒体的使用以及绩效报告
Using Technology to Enhance Creation and Distribution
如果使用得当,技术可以促进信息的创造(用电子表格)和传播(发邮件别人访问共享问单独给)过程。选择合适的传播方式和媒介很重要。Classifications for Communication Methods / 沟通方法的分类
- Interactive communication(交互式通信): Two or more people interact to exchange information via meetings, phone calls, or video conferencing. Most effective way to ensure common understanding / 两个或两个以上的人通过会议、电话或视频会议交流信息。确保共同理解的最有效方式
- Push communication(推送通信): Information is sent or pushed to recipients without their request via reports, e-mails, faxes, voice mails, and other means. Ensures that the information is distributed, but does not ensure that it was received or understood / 通过报告、电子邮件、传真、语音邮件等方式,在没有收件人要求的情况下,将信息发送或推送给收件人。确保信息被分发,但不确保信息被接收或理解
- Pull communication(拉动通信): Information is sent to recipients at their request via Web sites, bulletin boards, e-learning, knowledge repositories like blogs, and other means / 信息通过Web站点、公告板、电子学习、knowledge repositories知识库(如博客)和其他方式根据收件人的要求发送给他们
Reporting Performance / 报告绩效
Performance reporting keeps stakeholders informed about how resources are being used to achieve project objectives / 绩效报告让干系人了解如何使用资源来实现项目目标 - Status reports describe where the project stands at a specific point in time / 状态报告描述了项目在特定时间点的情况
- Progress reports describe what the project team has accomplished during a certain period of time / 进度报告描述了项目团队在一段时间内完成的工作
- Forecasts predict future project status and progress based on past information and trends / Forecasts 根据过去的信息和趋势预测未来的项目状态和进展
Controlling Communications / 控制沟通
- 控制通信的主要目标是确保整个项目生命周期中的最佳信息流
- 项目经理和项目团队应使用他们的各种报告系统、专家判断和会议来评估沟通的运作情况。如果存在问题,项目经理和团队需要采取行动,这通常需要更改规划和管理项目沟通的早期流程
- 让项目团队外部的协调人评估沟通的运作情况通常是有益的
Suggestions for Improving Communications / 改善沟通的建议
- Develop better communication skills / 发展更好的沟通技巧
- Run effective meetings / 召开有效的会议
- Use e-mail and other technologies effectively / 有效使用电子邮件和其他技术
- Use templates for project communications / 使用项目沟通模板
Developing Better Communication Skills / 发展更好的沟通技巧
沟通能力才是提升职位的关键
- 但是大多数公司在员工的技术培训上花了很多钱,即使员工可能从沟通培训中获益更多
- 与培养软技能的课程相比,个别员工更有可能自愿参加学习最新技术的课程
- 随着组织变得越来越全球化,他们意识到他们必须投资于促进与来自不同国家和文化的人的沟通
- 领导阶层需求改善沟通,以身作则。
Running Effective Meetings
一个糟糕的启动会议可能会导致涉众不支持这个项目。
- 确定会议是否可以避免:一周或更长时间开一个会
- 明确会议的目的和预期结果
- 决定谁应该参加会议
- 在会议开始前向与会者提供议程
- 事前准备分发的印刷品、多媒体辅助设备和后勤安排
- 专业地组织会议
- 制定会议的基本规则
- 建立关系:根据组织或项目文化,使会议生动有趣
Using E-Mail and Other Technologies Effectively
Using Templates for Project Communications
- 许多技术人员不敢寻求帮助
- 为项目通信提供示例和模板可节省时间和金钱
- 组织可以开发自己的模板,使用外部组织提供的一些模板,或使用教科书中的样本
- lessons-learned report 项目经验总结报告:项目管理者和他的团队成员所写的反馈性陈述,记录了他们在项目工作过程中总结得到的重要内容
chapter 11 项目风险管理
- 风险: 可能对项目目标产生负面或者正面影响的不确定事件
- risk appetite 风险偏好:实体为了获得期望的回报愿意承担的不确定性程度
- risk tolerance 风险承受力: 项目或业务目标的潜在影响中实体能够接受的最大的偏差.
- risk utility 风险效用: 风险的潜在回报所带来的满意度
风险偏好类型:
- risk-averse 风险厌恶型: 从风险中获得的满意会越来越少
- risk-neutral 风险中性型: 在风险和回报之间取得平衡
risk-seeking 风险喜爱型: 对风险有很高的承受力, 更多的回报处于风险之中, 他们的满意度越高
known risks 已知风险: 项目团队可以识别和分析的风险
- unknown risks 未知风险: 未被识别和分析的风险是无法管理的
Project Risk Management Processes / 项目风险管理过程
- Planning risk management 计划风险管理: Deciding how to approach and plan the risk management activities for the project / 确定如何处理和计划项目的风险管理活动
- outputs:
- Identifying risks 识别风险: Determining which risks are likely to affect a project and documenting the characteristics of each / 确定哪些风险可能会影响项目,并记录每个风险的特征
- outputs: 风险登记表
- Performing qualitative risk analysis 实施定性风险分析: Prioritizing risks based on their probability and impact of occurrence / 根据风险发生的概率和影响对风险进行优先排序
- outputs:
- Performing quantitative risk analysis 实施定量风险分析: Numerically estimating the effects of risks on project objectives / 数值估计风险对项目目标的影响
- outputs:
- Planning risk responses 计划风险响应: Taking steps to enhance opportunities and reduce threats to meeting project objectives / 采取措施增强机会和减少威胁,以实现项目目标
- outputs:
- Controlling risk 控制风险: Monitoring identified and residual risks, identifying new risks, carrying out risk response plans, and evaluating the effectiveness of risk strategies throughout the life of the project / 监控已识别和剩余风险,识别新风险,执行风险应对计划,并评估项目生命周期中风险策略的有效性
- Risk management plan 风险管理计划: a plan that documents the procedures for managing risk throughout a project / 记录了整个项目中管理风险的程序
Topics Addressed in a Risk Management Plan
- Methodology / 方法论
- Roles and responsibilities / 角色和责任
- Budget and schedule / 预算和进度
- Risk categories / 风险分类
- Risk probability and impact / 风险概率和影响
- Revised stakeholders’ tolerances / 利益相关者承受力修订
- Tracking / 跟踪
- Risk documentation / 风险文档
Contingency and Fallback Plans, Contingency Reserves / 应急和备用计划,应急储备金
- Contingency plans are predefined actions that the project team will take if an identified risk event occurs / 预先定义的行动,如果发生已识别的风险事件,项目团队将采取这些行动
- Fallback plans are developed for risks that have a high impact on meeting project objectives, and are put into effect if attempts to reduce the risk are not effective / 为对项目目标影响较大的风险制定的计划,如果减少风险的尝试不起作用,则将其付诸实施
- Contingency reserves or allowances are provisions held by the project sponsor or organization to reduce the risk of cost or schedule overruns to an acceptable level; management reserves are funds held for unknown risks / 项目赞助人或组织持有的减少成本或进度超支风险的准备金,管理储备是为未知风险而持有的资金
Common Sources of Risk in Information Technology Projects / IT 项目的常见风险来源
Broad Categories of Risk / 风险的广泛类别
- Market risk / 市场风险
- Financial risk / 财务风险
- Technology risk / 技术风险
- People risk / 人员风险
- Structure/process risk / 结构/过程风险
Risk Breakdown Structure / 风险分解结构
- A risk breakdown structure is a hierarchy of potential risk categories for a project / 风险分解结构是项目潜在风险类别的层次结构
- Similar to a work breakdown structure but used to identify and categorize risks / 类似于工作分解结构,但用于识别和分类风险
Identify Risks / 识别风险
- Identifying risks is the process of understanding what potential events might hurt or enhance a particular project / 识别风险是了解可能会损害或增强特定项目的潜在事件的过程
- Another consideration is the likelihood of advanced discovery / 另一个考虑因素是提前发现的可能性
风险识别工具和技术包括:
- Brainstorming / 头脑风暴
- The Delphi Technique / 德尔菲法
- Interviewing / 访谈
- SWOT analysis / SWOT 分析
对于风险识别的建议
Brainstorming
- a technique by which a group attempts to generate ideas or find a solution for a specific problem by amassing ideas spontaneously and without judgment,一个小组试图通过自发地、不加评判地积累想法来产生想法或找到特定问题的解决方案。建立一份综合风险清单的时候可能会用到这个方法。
- 一个有经验的主持人应该主持头脑风暴会议,但注意不要过度使用或误用头脑风暴。
- 心理学文献表明,个体单独工作比在面对面的小组中进行头脑风暴产生更多的想法,群体效应常常抑制创意的产生
Deplphi Technique
- The Delphi Technique is used to derive a consensus among a panel of experts who make predictions about future developments / 德尔菲法用于从一组专家中得出共识,这些专家对未来的发展进行预测
- Provides independent and anonymous input regarding future events / 提供关于未来事件的独立和匿名输入
- Uses repeated rounds of questioning and written responses and avoids the biasing effects possible in oral methods, such as brainstorming / 使用重复的提问和书面回答,避免口头方法可能产生的偏见效应,如头脑风暴
Interviewing
- Interviewing is a fact-finding technique for collecting information in face-to-face, phone, e-mail, or instant-messaging discussions / 访谈是一种收集信息的事实查明技术,可以通过面对面、电话、电子邮件或即时消息讨论来进行
- Interviewing people with similar project experience is an important tool for identifying potential risks / 与具有类似项目经验的人进行访谈是识别潜在风险的重要工具
SWOT Analysis
- SWOT analysis (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats) can also be used during risk identification / SWOT 分析也可以在风险识别过程中使用
- Helps identify the broad negative and positive risks that apply to a project / 有助于识别适用于项目的广泛负面和正面风险
风险登记表
The main output of the risk identification process is a list of identified risks and other information needed to begin creating a risk register / 风险识别过程的主要输出是已识别风险的列表和开始创建风险登记表所需的其他信息
- A risk register is:
- A document that contains the results of various risk management processes and that is often displayed in a table or spreadsheet format / 包含各种风险管理过程结果的文档,通常以表格或电子表格格式显示
- A tool for documenting potential risk events and related information / 用于记录潜在风险事件和相关信息的工具
- Risk events refer to specific, uncertain events that may occur to the detriment or enhancement of the project / 风险事件指可能发生的特定不确定事件,可能对项目造成损害或增强
Risk Register Contents
- An identification number for each risk event / 每个风险事件的标识号
- A rank for each risk event / 每个风险事件的等级
- The name of each risk event / 每个风险事件的名称
- A description of each risk event / 每个风险事件的描述
- The category under which each risk event falls / 每个风险事件所属的类别
- The root cause of each risk / 导致该风险的根本原因
- Triggers for each risk; triggers are indicators or symptoms of actual risk events / 每个风险的触发器;触发器是实际风险事件的指标或症状
- Potential responses to each risk / 可能的应对
- The risk owner or person who will own or take responsibility for each risk / 风险责任人
- The probability and impact of each risk occurring. / 每个风险发生的概率和影响
- The status of each risk / 每个风险的状态
qualitative risk analysis 定性风险分析
Assess the likelihood and impact of identified risks to determine their magnitude and priority / 评估已识别风险的可能性和影响,以确定其大小和优先级
- 风险量化工具和技术包括:
- Probability/impact matrixes / 概率/影响矩阵
- The Top Ten Risk Item Tracking / 前十大风险条目跟踪
- Expert judgment / 专家判断
Probability/Impact Matrixes
- 概率/影响矩阵或图表列出了图表上矩阵或轴一侧发生风险的相对概率,以及另一侧发生的风险的相对影响。
- 列出风险,然后根据其发生的可能性及其影响(如果确实发生)将每个风险标记为高、中或低
- 还可以计算风险因素:
- 根据特定事件发生的概率以及发生时对项目造成的后果,表示特定事件的总体风险的数字
- 根据特定事件发生的概率以及发生时对项目造成的后果,表示特定事件的总体风险的数字
一种更复杂使用概率/影响信息的方法是计算影响因子risk factors:代表特定事件的总体风险的数字,基于它们发生的概率和如果它们确实发生对项目的后果
Top Ten Risk Item Tracking / 前十大风险条目跟踪
- Top Ten Risk Item Tracking is a qualitative risk analysis tool that helps to identify risks and maintain an awareness of risks throughout the life of a project / 前十大风险条目跟踪是一种定性风险分析工具,有助于识别风险并在项目生命周期中保持对风险的认识
- Establish a periodic review of the top ten project risk items / 建立对项目前十大风险条目的定期审查
- List the current ranking, previous ranking, number of times the risk appears on the list over a period of time, and a summary of progress made in resolving the risk item / 列出当前排名、上次排名、风险在一段时间内出现在列表上的次数,以及解决风险条目的进展摘要
Watch List
- A watch list is a list of risks that are low priority, but are still identified as potential risks / 观察列表是一个低优先级的风险列表,但仍被确定为潜在风险
- Qualitative analysis can also identify risks that should be evaluated on a quantitative basis / 定性分析还可以确定应该定量评估的风险
Quantitative Risk Analysis / 定量风险分析
- Often follows qualitative risk analysis, but both can be done together / 通常在定性风险分析之后进行,但两者可以同时进行
- Large, complex projects involving leading edge technologies often require extensive quantitative risk analysis / 涉及领先技术的大型复杂项目通常需要广泛的定量风险分析
主要技术包括: - Decision tree analysis
- Simulation
- Sensitivity analysis
Decision Trees and Expected Monetary Value (EMV) 决策树和期望货币价值
- A decision tree is a diagramming analysis technique used to help select the best course of action in situations in which future outcomes are uncertain / 决策树是一种图表分析技术,用于帮助在未来结果不确定的情况下选择最佳行动方案
- Estimated monetary value (EMV) is the product of a risk event probability and the risk event’s monetary value / 估计货币价值(EMV)是风险事件概率和风险事件的货币价值的乘积
- You can draw a decision tree to help find the EMV / 你可以画一棵决策树来帮助找到 EMV
Simulation 模拟
Monte Carlo analysis 通过多次模拟一个模型的结果,来提供计算结果的统计分布。能够预测在某个日期前完成的概率,或成本等于或小于某一值的概率。
3、步骤:
- Assess the range for the variables being considered 要使用蒙特卡罗模拟,您必须有三个估计(最可能、最悲观和最乐观),再加上估计在最可能值和最乐观值之间的可能性的估计
- Determine the probability distribution of each variable 变量处在最可能和乐观的概率有多大
- For each variable, select a random value(时间估算) based on the probability distribution(如20% 10周,80% 5周)
- Run a deterministic analysis or one pass through the model (5)Repeat (10-1000次)steps 3 and 4 many times to obtain the probability distribution of the model’s results / 重复步骤3和4多次以获得模型结果的概率分布
Sensitivity Analysis 灵敏度分析
通过改变一个或多个变量观察其结果的影响。
Plan Risk Responses / 风险响应计划
在识别和量化风险之后,必须决定如何应对它们
针对负面风险的四项主要应对策略:
- Risk avoidance 风险回避:消除某一具体的威胁,通常采用消除其原因的方法。
- Risk acceptance 风险承担:当风险发生接受其带来的后果
- Risk transference 风险转移:将风险的结果及其责任转移到第三方
- Risk mitigation 风险缓解:减少风险事件发生的概率来缓解风险事件的影响
应对正面风险的四种策略:
- Risk exploitation 风险开发:采取措施保证积极的风险发生。
- Risk sharing 风险共担:或把风险所有权分配给另外一方。
- Risk enhancement 风险增强:通过识别和最大化正面风险的关键驱动因素来增加机会
- Risk acceptance 风险承担:当项目团队不能或者选择不去采取任何行动时
Residual Risks and Secondary Risks / 剩余风险和次生风险
- residual risks 剩余风险 是指实施风险响应策略后剩余的风险
- secondary risks 次生风险 是指实施风险响应策略后直接产生的风险
Control Risks / 控制风险
- 包括执行风险管理过程以响应风险事件。执行风险管理过程是指确保风险意识是一项在整个项目过程,全部由项目团队执行的不间断的活动
- Workarounds 权变措施,是在没有应急计划的情况下对风险事件做出的计划外响应
11、风险监控的工具和技术包括?
风险再评估;
风险审计;
偏差和趋势分析;
技术性能测量;
储备分析;
状态会议;
定期风险评审;
chapter 12 项目采购管理
Procurement means acquiring goods and/or services from an outside source / 采购意味着从外部来源获取商品和服务
why outsource?
- To access skills and technologies
- To reduce both fixed and recurrent costs
- To allow the client organization to focus on its core business
- To provide flexibility
- To increase accountability
Contracts 合同
- A contract is a mutually binding agreement that obligates the seller to provide the specified products or services and obligates the buyer to pay for them / 合同是一份相互约束的协议,义务卖方提供指定的产品或服务,义务买方支付这些产品或服务
- Contracts can clarify responsibilities and sharpen focus on key deliverables of a project / 合同可以澄清责任,并集中关注项目的关键交付内容
- Because contracts are legally binding, there is more accountability for delivering the work as stated in the contract / 由于合同具有法律约束力,因此对按合同规定交付工作更加负责
- A recent trend in outsourcing is the increasing size of contracts / 外包的一个最近趋势是合同规模的增加
Project Procurement Management Processes / 项目采购管理过程
Project procurement management: Acquiring goods and services for a project from outside the performing organization / 从执行组织外部获取项目的商品和服务
Processes include:
- Planning procurement management 采购管理计划: Determining what to procure and when and how to do it / 确定何时以及如何采购
- outputs: 采购管理计划、采购工作说明书、采购文档、资源选择标准、自制/外购决策、变更请求、项目文档更新
- Conducting procurements 实施采购: Obtaining seller responses, selecting sellers, and awarding contracts / 进行采购:获取卖方回应,选择卖方,并授予合同
- outputs: 卖家、协议、资源日历、变更请求、项目管理计划更新、项目文档更新
- Controlling procurements 采购控制: Managing relationships with sellers, monitoring contract performance, and making changes as needed / 控制采购:管理与卖方的关系,监控合同履行情况,并根据需要进行更改
- outputs: 工作绩效信息、变更请求、三个更新
- Closing procurements 采购收尾: Completing and settling each contract or agreement, including resolving of any open items / 结束采购:完成和解决每个合同或协议,包括解决任何未解决的问题
- outputs: 收尾的采购、组织过程资产更新
- outputs: 收尾的采购、组织过程资产更新
Plan Procurement Management / 计划采购管理
make-or-buy analysis 制造或购买分析,指组织决定是在组织内部制作某些产品或者完成某种服务好,还是从组织外购买这些产品或服务更符合组织的最大利益。
types of contracts 合同类型
- Different types of contracts can be used in different situations: / 不同类型的合同可以在不同情况下使用:
- Fixed price or lump sum contracts: Involve a fixed total price for a well-defined product or service / 固定价格或总价合同:涉及明确定义的产品或服务的固定总价
- Cost reimbursable contracts: Involve payment to the seller for direct and indirect costs / 成本报销合同:涉及向卖方支付直接和间接成本
- Time and material contracts: Hybrid of both fixed price and cost reimbursable contracts, often used by consultants / 时间和材料合同:固定价格和成本报销合同的混合体,通常由顾问使用
- Unit price contracts: Require the buyer to pay the seller a predetermined amount per unit of service / 单价合同:要求买方按服务单位向卖方支付预定金额
- A single contract can actually include all four of these categories, if it makes sense for that particular procurement / 如果对于特定采购有意义,单个合同实际上可以包括这四个类别
工具和技术
1、Expert judgment 分为内部和外部专家(甚至包括供应商端)
2、Market research
3、Make-or-buy analysis: General management technique used to determine whether an organization should make or perform a particular product or service inside the organization or buy from someone else
采购管理计划
工作说明书 SOW
采购文档
实施采购
控制采购
建设性变更单
采购收尾
chapter 13 项目干系人管理 / Project Stakeholder Management
Identify Stakeholders / 识别干系人
- stakeholder analysis 干系人分析:通过分析信息来确定干系人关注什么,以及如何提高干系人对于项目的支持。
- power/interest grid 权力/利益矩阵:
Plan Stakeholder Management / 计划干系人管理
Manage Stakeholder Engagement / 管理干系人参与
- expectation management matrix 期望管理矩阵:
- issue log 问题日志: 用来记录、监控和跟踪需要解决问题的一种工具